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THE BRAIN AND SPINAL NERVES. 



7^ 



ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY : 

A 

^rkittifir, ftfplar, atrtr § raxtkal Create 

ON THE 

PREVENTION, CAUSES, AND CURE 
OF DISEASE ; 

OR, 

ELECTEICITY AS A CURATIVE A.GENT, 

SUPPORTED BY THEORY AND FACT. 

BY _ 

DR. G E R S H O M HUFF. 

SECOND EDITION. 

ISmMUsfjett bntij Numerous Illustrations. 



NEW-YORK : 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 200 BKOADWAY, 

AND 16 LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON 

1853. 






Entered according to Aot of Congreas, in the year 1853 by 

DR. GERSHOM HUFF, 

In the Clerk's Office of tne District Court of tne United States for tho 
Southern District of Ne-w-York. 



ftttnfotctimu 

The author has been induced to publish the following 
pages not only from a sense of public duty, but at the 
pressing solicitations of numerous friends and others, 
whose benevolence and philanthropy are particularly 
directed to the rising generation. 

Many of them, having been sufferers by the painful 
maladies, the physiology, pathology, and cure of which it 
has been the object of the author of these pages to inves- 
tigate and point out, have, by their advice and encourage- 
ment, urged him onward in the performance of a task 
from which, under less auspicious influences, he might pos- 
sibly have shrunk. 

Prevention is at all times better than cure ; but when a 
possibility no longer exists of securing the former, the best 
substitute is the most rational and scientific mode of ob- 
taining the latter, which can only be founded on a thorough 
knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and therapeutics, so 
far as they are connected with the derangements of the sys- 
tem under treatment. 

The intention of this work has failed in its fulfilment if 
both of the above advantages have not been secured. 

The salutary lessons of history teach us, if we would 
profit by them, that the ratio of disease is proportioned to 



IV INTRODUCTION. 

the increase of wealth and its concomitant, luxury ; but, 
like Dr. Franklin's "Poor Richard," in this respect,' we 
hear a good sermon, acknowledge its truthfulness, and 
act — in direct opposition to its precepts. 

With the stuffs and tinsels of the Old World, we im- 
port its follies and its vices ; the simplicity of republican 
manners is becoming daily less visible amongst us ; our 
habits of life, our equipages, our houses, seek rather to vie 
with those of Europe than to look back, for an example, 
to the stern simplicity which distinguished the sages of 
the Revolution. 

American in our political feelings, in the freedom of 
our civil and religious institutions, we are, too often, not 
ashamed to become the servile imitators of the Eastern 
hemisphere in our fashionable and domestic follies. Our 
children, under the influences of fashionable example and 
a reckless disregard of the means to insure a vigorous con- 
stitution, arrive at maturity in youth, and experience its 
pains and penalties in advance of its assigned arrival. 

To these causes may be attributed in no trifling degree 
those diseases which, having their origin in a deranged 
state of the functions of the nervous system, are rapidly 
increasing amongst us ; the painful heritage of many 
among the present generation, the sure inheritance of the 
future. Among these, Scrofula in its insidious approach 
and ever-changing forms, Madness, Hypochondriasis, De- 
lirium Tremens and others, the offspring of vice and the 
foster-children of neglected moral and physical education, 
are not the least appalling. 



INTRODUCTION. V 

In connection with the above list, which may be termed 
hereditary, with the solitary exception of Delirium Tre- 
mens, are Neuralgia, Epilepsy, Paralysis, softenings of the 
brain, hip-joint disease, softening of the larger bones, con- 
tracted muscles, distorted spines ; a fraction of the Protean 
forms of nervous disease. 

Whilst the author's attention for some years has been 
devoted to the study and cure of nervous diseases generally, 
during which time he has omitted no means of informa- 
tion, either by direct observation or otherwise, as to their 
origin and symptoms, it has been specially directed to the 
treatment of Neuralgia, Paralysis, and Distortions of the 
Spine. 

The method of cure in these diseases pursued by the 
author of this work is simple, but not the less effectual. 
For the means employed, he claims no originality ; but in 
their adaptation, in the concentration of power to a specific 
purpose, he claims an indisputable priority. 

It is to these he attributes a success far exceeding his 
sanguine expectations in eradicating and alleviating the 
painful symptoms which are never-failing attendants on 
nervous disease, and the restoration of many to the enjoy- 
ment of health and happiness, whose cases, upon a primary 
investigation, afforded no prospect of relief. With these 
few remarks, he consigns his work to the public, not less 
anxious for the benefits it may confer on suffering humanity 
than for the patronage it may obtain. 

New- York, December, 1852. 



Contents 



CHAPTER I. 

©f tlje JSotus. 

Description of Spinal Column — Unites the Nerves of Intellect and Sensation 

Injuries of Spine and Brain more frequent in Mature Age than in Youth 

—Cause— Elasticity of the Spinal Column— Misshapen and Crooked Spines 
—How produced— Sternum, or Breast Bone— True Ribs— Floating Ribs— 
The Humerus, or Upper Arm— How attached to the Scapula, or Blade 
Bone— The Pelvis— Description of. 21 

CHAPTER II. 

Muscles. 

Symmetry of Form dependent on Muscular Development— Five Hundred and 
Twenty-seven Muscles— Various Kinds of Muscle— How shaped — Attach- 
ment between the Tendons and Bones— Muscles formed in Layers— Volun- 
tary and Involuntary Muscles— Front View of the Muscles— Description- 
Rupture of the Achilles Tendon in Dancing— Difficulty of Reunion. 28 

CHAPTER III. 

Jltusclea ffitmttituctr. 

Importance of r,he Muscular System — The Vital Stream dependent upon its 
Contractions — The Arts would perish if Animal Organization were de- 
prived of Muscularity— Muscular Tissue— Muscles of Organic Life— Of Ani- 
mal Life — The latter termed Striped Muscles — Difference between the 
Muscles of Animal and Organic Life — Shortening of Muscle when it con- 



Viii CONTENTS. 

tracts— Animal Heat generated by Muscular Contraction— Sound pro- 
duced by the Contraction of a Muscle— The Power of Muscles to contract 
dependent upon Two Influences— Influence of the Nerves on Muscular 
Contractility— The Great Importance of Muscular Agency— The best Singer, 
or Elocutionist— Necessity of Using the Vocal Muscles— Essential Character- 
istic of Muscular Fibres— Voluntary Muscles dependent for their Action 
upon the Nerves of the Brain— Involuntary Muscles supplied with Nerves 
from the Spinal Marrow— Voluntary Muscles dependent for their Contrac- 
tility upon the Mind— Graceful Movement arises from a well-balanced 
Connection— The Ravels— Ole Bull— Jenny Lind— Madame Sontag— In the 
Exercise of the Voluntary Muscles the Rapidity of their Contractions has 
scarcely a Maximum— The Hare— Carrier Pigeon— Race Horse— Uniformity 
between the Muscular and Nervous Systems essential to the Perfection and 
Endurance of Power— A sound and regular Muscular Contraction neces- 
sary to Digestion— Few, if any, Muscular Actions are Single— All Muscu- 
lar Tissue retains its Power of Contractility for a short time after Death— 
Antoine Le Blanc, the Murderer of the Sayre Family, at Morristown— A 
Convict executed at Glasgow 47 



CHAPTER IV. 

fflustUs continued— Efteir f^une. 

Daring and Superhuman Feats of Activity— Appalling Scenes produced by the 
Freaks of Fashion— Belgian Giant— Chinese Porters— Turkish Carriers— 
The Functions of Organic Life — There is not a Solitary Function, &c. — 
Practice makes Perfect— Mental and Physical Powers connected— Pinel— 
Aristocratic Grandees of Spain in its Insane Institutions — Organic Power 
and Action — The Gastrocnemius Muscle — The Boatman — The Clerk — The 
Copper or Blacksmith— Baneful Effects of Muscular Inactivity— Sedentary, 
inactive Individuals become fat — Supposed to betoken Health — Supposition 
erroneous — How the Fat is produced — The Muscles of such Persons — A 
Limit in the Full Attainment of Growth and Power in a Muscle— Amount 
of Exercise necessary to insure vigorous Muscular Contractility varies in 
different Individuals— The Effects of Over-exertion on the Animal Creation 
— The Horse— Irish Emigrants— Alcoholic Liquors— Beautiful Uniformity 
between the Laws of the Animate and Inanimate Worlds — Necessity of 
obeying the former, absolute— The wild Enthusiasts of Hindostan— More 
fcuniliar Examples in our Seminaries of Learning — Teachers in Public and 
novate Schools — Ward Schools progressing in Physical Education — Yet 
Infants in the Elementary Knowledge — Scale graduating Seats and Desks — 
Mr. Paton — Fixed Position of the Muscles in Children — The System which 
prevails in our Schools — Physical Education — Greatest Luminaries of Intel- 
lect — Restlessness of Children — The Seats or Benches in Schools — If a stoop- 
ing Attitude be Maintained — By a similar Attitude the Seamstress, &c— 
The Treble Curvature 58 



CONTENTS. IX 

CHAPTER V. 

Rustles continues— Ei)cix ffissicnt. 

Ribs united by Cartilages— Effects of Undue Pressure by Tight Lacing, fee- 
Perverted Taste— All Organic Diseases accelerated by Pressure on the Chest 
— A Wise Law of our Physical Condition— Muscularity essential to Animated 
Nature— The Colt— Severe Labor should not be imposed on Youth— The 
Development of the Physical System— Skin heated by violent Muscular 
Exertion— Sources of Diseased Spine— Boarding Schools— Healthy Blood 
—Excess of Carbonic Acid Gas— Carbon the Base of Charcoal— Plants at 
Night — Action of Impure Air on Muscular System — Tailors, Milliners, and 
Dress Makers — Twenty-four per cent, of Deaths caused by Impure Air — 
Light of the Sun— Statistics from Russia — An Impure Atmosphere when 
Heated— Humanity's Claims on our Public Municipal Authorities— Too 
much Attention cannot be paid to the Spine in Youth — Scholars, the Indo- 
lent and Weak — When the System is in a state of Exhaustion— The Muscles 
of the Spine under such a Condition— Strict Discipline requisite in Physics 
as in Morals — Exercise properly regulated essential to Healthy Muscular 
Action — Laws which govern Organic Life not known in our Colleges ; if 
known, not practised — Theological Students — Causes of Bronchitis among 
our Clergy— The Sculptor 76 



CHAPTER VI. 

©f the Neruous Eastern. 

A New and deeply-interesting Field of Inquiry— What the Nervous System 
embraces— Of what it consists— Its Constituent Portions— Composition of 
the Nervous Tissues— The Vesicular Nervous Substance— The Fibrous Ner- 
vous Substance— The Round White Cords— Of the Cranial Nerves— Of the 
Spinal Nerves— Each of these Nerves arises from the Spinal Marrow by Two 
Roots— The Anterior the Motor or Moving Root— The Posterior the Sensi- 
tive Root— Segments of the Brain— Three Coverings or Coats of the Brain- 
Two Hemispheres, Right and Left— Each Hemisphere divided into Three 
Lobes— The Anterior Part of the Brain— Situation of the Cerebellum and 
Medulla Oblongata — Anterior Part of the Brain may be sliced off without 
Pain— Effects of the Removal of the Brain Proper 96 



CHAPTER VII. 

Kcr&ous Eastern (Continues. 

Experiment of M. RiAerand— The Medulla Oblongata the Link which binds 
us to Existence — Corpora Pyramidalia —Corpora Olivaria— Restiform Bodies 



X CONTENTS. 

—Description of the Nerves issuing from the Medulla Oblongata— Their 
Offices — The Facial the harder portion of the Auditory Nerve— Its Exten- 
sive Ramifications —Has been called the Lesser Sympathetic — Was sup- 
posed to be the Seat of Tic Doloreux — Supposition erroneous — It may be 
Paralyzed from various causes — Glosso-Pharyngeal a Branch of the Eighth 
Pair— Pneumogastric a Second Branch— Spinal Accessory a Third Branch 
—Case of Paralysis in "King's College," London— Lower Division of the 
Laryngeal Nerve— Effects of the Division of this Nerve on the Voice— Ex- 
periment on a Rabbit to prove the Pneumogastric was endued with some 
Motor Power— Those affected with Distorted Spines, Scrofula, Club Feet, 
Gout, or Epilepsy, should not Marry — To abstain from it a solemn Duty to 
Posterity— Children most liable to these Diseases— The well-educated Phy- 
sician — Origin of the Spinal Accessory — Muscular Movements of the Pas- 
sions under its Control — Front View of the Medulla Oblongata — Neck Por- 
tion of the Spinal Cord— The Medulla Oblongata the Seat where the Func- 
tions of the Mind and Body meet — Other connecting Links in the Nervous 
System — Connection of Hysterics with the Pneumogastric Nerve — Dance of 
St. Vitus--Hydrophobia— Dr. Gall's Theory of the Nervous System— Flou- 
rin's System— Cerebellum not a Central Point for Sensation— The Brain 
taken as a whole within the Skull 106 

CHAPTER VIII. 

^figatolocis anfc ^atfjolosa of the 33ram. 

Animal Existence from the Zoophyte to Man — Nerves scattered throughout 
the Body in the Former — The more Perfect Animals without a Spine — 
Animals furnished with a Spine— Spinal Marrow superadded— Reptiles, 
Birds, and Mammalia — Successive Evolution in the Size of the Brain — 
Weight of the Human Brain compared with that of the Body— South 
American Apes same relative Proportions— Canary Bird — Goose— Weight 
and Size not Measures of Intellectual Power— What determines the Intel- 
lectual Grade of the Animal— Reptiles and Fishes— Their Nervous System 
—Have no Sagacity— Their Tenacity of Life— Systems less intimately con- 
nected—Next descending Class— Divide a Zoophyte or a Worm— Ages have 
admitted the Cerebrum to be the Seat of Intellect— What Observation and 
Experiment have confirmed— Accumulations of Water in the Brain— The 
Outer Portions of the Convolutions— Perception, Memory, Power of Ab- 
straction, employ the Convolutions— They stand as intervening Messengers 
—The Cortical Substance of the Brain— Dissection of the Brains of Luna- 
tics-Precocity of Intellect and False Parental Pride. . . . 143 

CHAPTER IX. 

Wer&ous jForce atrtj EUctrtcttg. 

What is this Nervous Force or Power ?— The Nerves are not Passive Agents 
—The application of a Poisonous Substance to a Nerve— Contact of a Solid 



CONTENTS. XI 

Loay— A Wound in the Sole of the Foot— Appalling Convulsious of Epi- 
lepsy—Strychnine : its effect on the Spinal Cord— Effects of Opium — Should 
be very cautiously used in Locked-Jaw— Nervous Polarity and the Cold 
Douche — Hydrocianic Acid— Comparison between the Nervous and Gal- 
vanic Fluid— The Equalizing of the Electric Union— Absolute Contact be- 
tween the Metals not essential— Nervous Action from a Centre— Matteucci, 
a Physiologist of Pisa — Galvani Nobile— Matteucci's Experiment on a Rabbit 
—The Electric Apparatus supplied by Nature. .... 150 



CHAPTER X. 

Spinal Nfr&eg. 

The Spinal Cord — Representation of the Medulla Oblongata— What will be 
seen by the Figure— Nerves at the Lower Joints of the Neck— The External 
Cutaneous Nerve— The Internal Cutaneous Nerve — The Median Nerve — 
The Ulnar Nerve— The Auricularis Magnus, or Large Ear Nerve— Forma- 
tion of the Descending Branches of the Cervical Plexus — The Communicans 
Noni— The Phrenic, or Midriff Nerve— Formation of the Posterior Cervical 
Plexus— The Dorsal, or Back Nerves -The Branches between the False 
Ribs— Branches of the Intercostal— Cutaneous Branch of the Last Dorsal 
— A Section of the Brain and Spinal Column—The Anterior Branches of 
the Lumbar Nerves — The Posterior Branches — The Muscular Cutaneous — 
The External Cutaneous— The Genito-Crural— The Femoral, or Thigh Nerve 
—Sympathetic Nerve— Representation and Description of the Sympathetic 
—Power of Contractility in the Coats of the Blood-vessels no longer dis- 
puted 158 



CHAPTER XL 

OT&e Net&ous &£Ztcm—$tz f^gstene. 

What is a sine qua non to the Perfect Performance of the Functions of the 
Nervous System— What Connection exists between the Mind and Brain not 
the Subject of Inquiry — A Limit to Human Investigation — We know there 
is a Connection— The Condition on which it may be maintained— Hereditary 
Descent — Intermarriages between certain Degrees of Consanguinity— En- 
tailment of Disease by Hereditary Descent — The Command given to the 
great Hebrew Lawgiver — The Brain should not be Inactive — Pure Blood 
and Pure Air essential to a Vigorous Action of the Brain— External Agents 
—Consequences of their Effects being too long exerted— Continued Mental 
Action at any Period of Life Injurious— Particularly Injurious in Infancy— 
The Brain should not be Unusually Excited preceding or succeeding a 
Hearty Meal— The Morning of the Day the Proper Period for Mental Appli- 



Xll CONTENTS. 

cation — Reasons why it is so — Youth requires more Sleep than Age — Chil- 
dren in good Health require at least eight hours' Sleep — Feeble Children a 
longer Period — Mental Exertion must be controlled by Circumstances — Chil- 
dren whose Systems are not Developed— The Classification in Schools— At 
times highly Defective— Nature not to be flogged into Mental Exertion- 
Arrangement of Study essential — Brain should not be compelled to act in 
Opposition to its Physical Energies — Insanity — The Brain cannot, at one 
time, serve two Masters — Skull susceptible of Fracture from Slight Causes 
— Case of the Boy struck by a Teacher in a Western School — His subse- 
quent Death and Post-mortem Examination 178 



CHAPTER XH. 

JSoctritu of 3Ltfe. 

Seeds of Plants, Eggs of Fowls—Force in the Egg— Putrefaction— Health- 
First Condition essential to the Integrity of Vital Action— The Phenom- 
ena of Starvation— Effects of protracted Abstinence — Second Condition 
necessary for the Preservation of Organic Force— The Third Condition- 
Theory of Combustion— Principal Source of Animal Heat — Quantity of 
Carbon exhaled from the Lungs in Health per Hour— Clothing an Equiva- 
lent for a certain Amount of Food— The Kind and Quantity of Food— The 
Cooling of the Body — Effects of loud and continued Speaking, Crying of 
Infants, &c. — Connection of Vital Force and Animal Electricity — Subject of 
Animal Electrity New— Analysis of Electricity in Man, by Professor M tiller, 
of Berlin— The Connection between the Human Body, in Health and Dis- 
ease, and Electricity, will be shown in the next Chapter. . . 190 



CHAPTER XIII. 

pfiflosoplja of £tf*. 

Philosophy of Life — Differs from the Doctrine of Life — Importance of Health 
—A peculiar Element in Nature— Life not a Simple— It is this Principle 
which pervades all Nature— It is not in itself Vitality — Earth, Air, and 
Water — Atmospheric Elements next in the Scale — Stomach— The Natural 
Historian— Electricity— Its attractive Force— Mingles with Human Mechan- 
ism—Influences of Electricity— Mind— The Brain of Lunatics— The Muscu- 
lar Power of the Chest— The Functions of the Heart— Allopathy— Hydro- 
pathy— Simplicity in the Healing Art— Too much Art and too little Science 
—Disease must have a Cause— Illustrative Cases, by Dr. Parmly; by the 
Author. 211 



CONTENTS. Xlll 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Electricitg : its Connections foitfj, antr Enfluences anto actions on, 
Htbina, Monies. 

A Portion of the Functions of Organic Life— Study, Grief, Care— The Mourner 
at the Grave of his Friend— Dr. Marshall Hall— Experiment with the Ley- 
den Jar — A Dry Atmosphere— A Current of Damp Air— Neuralgia, Tic 
Doloreux, Rheumatism— Dr. Milne Edwards— Dr. Wilson Philip—Brydone 
—The Atmospheric Influences of an Equilibrium in Electricity — Sirocco of 
the South of Europe — Kamsin of Asia — Brydone's Remarks on Electricity, 
on a Visit to Mount Etna — A Lady in Switzerland— Two Gentlemen of 
Geneva— The Influences of Electricity upon Respiration— Sir Humphrey 
Davy— Dr. Philip's Experiment— Mr. Atkinson's Cases of Cholera. 225 



CHAPTER XV. 

©pinions at Eminent iEcotcal JEicn on Electncits, antj its Effects 
on disease. 

Dr. Tuson, of London— The late John Abernethy— Professor Wisgrill, of 
Vienna— Braithwaite's Retrospect— Cases by Eminent Physicians in Europe 
— Aphonia, or Loss of Voice— Theodore Mandurick— Palsy, by Dr. Neligan 
— Hemiplegia, or Palsy of One Side, from the Head downwards, by M. 
Bemond— Paraplegia, or Palsy across the Body, by Dr. Constantine James 
—Tinnitus Aurium, or Ringing in the Ears, by Dr. Hoering— Dr. Finella ou 
Deafness — Neuralgia, by Magendie — Sciatica, by Dr. E. Hermel — Asthma, 
Chronic Difficulty of Breathing, Anosmia, or Loss of Smell, and Amaurosis, 
by Dr. Wilson Philip— Chorea, (St. Vitus' Dance,) Facial Paralysis, (Palsy of 
the Face,) by Dr. Goldiug Bird— Tetanus, (Universal Cramp,) by Surgeon 
Hailey— Rheumatic and Local Palsy, by T. J. Vallance — Constipation, by Dr. 
W. Cummiug— Removal of a Naevus, or Mother's Mark, from a Child, by J. 
Hilton, Esq., Guy's Hospital— Suspended Animation, Narcotism, Russell and 
Johnson, King's College Hospital, London — Mr. Corfe, Middlesex Hospital 
— S. P. James, Esq.— Dr. William Bird—Greenwich Avenue Calamity— Dr. 
Vanderpool 239 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Influence* of Improper J"oo&, &c, on tlje ^urnan Eastern. 

Table of the Various Kinds of Food— Various Periods of Time occupied by 
them in the Digestive Process— Quantity and Quality of Food— Tempera- 
ment— The Sanguine— The Lymphatic— The Nervous— The Bilious— Time 
not to be exceeded between Breakfast and Dinner— Fat and Oily Meats— 



XIV CONTENTS. 

Excessive Use of Pork—Soups— Pastry, Puddings, &c.--Fish, Water— Rest 
of Body and Mind necessary to Digestion— The Gastric Juice— Dr. Caldwell, 
of Kentucky— Table containing a Graduated Scale of the Nutrition con- 
tained in Various Kinds of Food . . . 274 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Enfluciuc of alcohol on the f^uman Eastern. 

First Effect of Alcohol on the Mucous Lining of the Stomach — Enters the Veins 
of the Stomach— Is mixed with the Blood— Post-mortem Examination of 
Drunkards — What is the Condition of the Blood in Intemperates ? — Alco- 
holic Congestion of the Brain— Nervous System of the Inebriate— The De- 
pression of the Vital Powers— The Tremulous Hand— Effects of Dram-Drink- 
ing on the Muscular System — Spontaneous Combustion from Drinking — 
Many Cases recorded — Is Alcohol a Poison? — Figure of Antiquity — Mr. 
Fyfe, of Edinburgh — Who were the Principal Victims to the Cholera ? — 
Typhoid Ship Fever — Picture of the Physical Appearance of the Confirmed 
Drunkard— Murder, Manslaughter, Suicide— Difficulty of applying a Remedy 
in the Present State of our Laws 283 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

Effects of STooacco on tfj£ ^uman &nstem. 

Pernicious Effect on the Nervous System — Acts directly on the Nerves of the 
Stomach— Loss of Muscular Power — Case depicting the Effects of Tobacco 
—Amaurosis (Dimness of Sight) caused by Tobacco— Dr. Chapman on the 
Effect of Tobacco— Effects of Tobacco Injections— Snuff Plasters for Chil- 
dren—Great Danger in their Use — Tobacco equally Injurious to the Stomach, 
Heart, Lungs, Brain, and Nervous System generally. . . 309 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Influence of Mint} ooer iHattcr, in the $nrtjuct(on anto ©ure of 
JBisease, 

Mysterious but Visible Effects of Mind on Matter— Of the Essence of Mind 
Nothing is Known — The Connection between Mind and Matter established 
in this Chapter— The Blood the Primary Conductor— Iron one of the Con- 
stituents of the Blood— One of the most powerful Conductors of Electricity 
—Nerves in close Connection with the Arteries— It is from the Brain the 
Heart and Lungs receive their Motion— Electricity inhaled with the Oxygen 
that causes the Blood to Circulate— Physiological Evidence of this Fact— 



CONTENTS. XV 

Medical Profession too apt to look on Proximate Causes— Empiricism ex- 
posed — Oxygen and Electricity the only Purifiers of the Blood — The Nerves, 
and not the Blood, the Primary Seats of Disease— Sudden Anger will pro- 
duce Apoplexy and Death — Cause — Subjects most likely for Insanity — 
Cases— Consequences of Unpleasant News on the Mind— The Advocates for 
the Old Theory of Disease — The Cause, in its diminished Influence, which 
produces Insanity — Degrees of Pain arising from different States of Electricity 
—Man but the Reflected Image of Nature— Effects of a sudden Gust of 
Night Air — Percentage of Electricity in the Nervous System — Fifty per cent. 
under Mental Control — Fifty per cent, under the Control of the Involuntary 
Nerves — Sudden Effects on the Brain from Increased Electricity on the 
Arrival of Alarming News — Cases— Causes— Operations on the Production 
of Disease having their Origin in Mental Impressions — Cases — Influence of 
the Mind over the Body — Imagination may form the Natural Disposition, 
either for Good or Evil— Case related by the late Rev. Dr. Rudd, of 
Utica — Effects of Imagination on Physical Formation. . .315 



CHAPTER XX. 

JKUrteral antj Yt&zta.bU poisons, antt tfjnr Snti&otts. 

Mineral Poisons most Distressing— Emetics — Sulphate of Zinc most Rapid in 
its Operation— Infusions of Slippery Elm— Sal Volatile— Vinegar— Tartar 
Emetic Wine — Mucilaginous Drinks — Nut Galls and Oak Bark — Arsenic 
—Case of Mrs. Wood— Verdigris— Sugar of Lead— Sulphuric Acid its Anti- 
dote—Carbonate of Soda— Oxalic Acid— The Vegetable Poisons— Opium- 
Morphia, or Morphine— Stramonium, or Stink Weed— Two Cases of its 
Poisonous Effects on Children 339 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Central ^anopsts 349 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 



The prolongation of human life, the mitigation 
of the diseases, physical deformities, and sufferings 
to which man is exposed on his journey from the 
cradle to the grave, are subjects of the highest 
earthly importance. They concern not only the 
philanthropist, the statesman, and the philosopher, 
but also come directly home to every individual, 
whatever may be his station in life. 

It is a well-known fact, that, comparatively 
speaking, very few persons die of old age, or from 
the gradual wearing out of their animal bodies. 
The great mass of mankind are prematurely cut 
off. "Why is it that so large a portion of the human 
family descend prematurely into their graves ? We 
answer, it is because they violate the laws which 
the Grod of nature has, in His wisdom, established 
for their physical well-being ; because the things 
'which are necessary for developing and main- 
taining the integrity of their animal bodies are 
left undone, and the things which are destructive 
to that integrity are done. 

In the following pages we propose to unfold and 



20 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

explain some of the most important laws of onr 
animal nature, in a manner intelligible to non- 
professional readers. We must however commence 
■with an outline of our anatomical structure. 

The human body consists, 1st, of a bony frame- 
work, the skeleton; 2d, of ligaments, or white, 
fibrous bands, which unite the bones together, 
forming articulations or joints; 3d, of muscles, or 
red fleshy bundles arranged in layers outside of the 
bones for the purpose of producing motion by 
their alternate contraction and relaxation; 4th, 
of nerves, or whitish cords extending from the 
brain and spinal marrow to the muscles and ex- 
ternal skin, through which the mind derives a 
knowledge of substances in contact with the body, 
and through which also the will operates upon the 
muscles ; 5th, of bloodvessels, or elastic pipes through 
which the blood is conveyed to and returned from 
the different parts of the body, for the purpose of 
nourishing and promoting the growth of the tis- 
sues ; 6th, the organs of respiration, consisting of 
the lungs, the trachea or wind pipe, and the larynx ; 
7th, the organs of digestion, which embrace the 
oesophagus or gullet, the stomach, intestines, liver, 
spleen, pancreas, and absorbents ; 8th, the genito- 
urinary apparatus ; 9th, the nervous centres, includ- 
ing the brain, the spinal marrow, and the ganglia of 
the sympathetic nerve ; 10th, cellular and fatty tis- 
sue, by which the different parts of the body are 
united together, so as to constitute a beautiful 
whole; and 11th, the skin, which envelopes the 
body like a garment, and is moulded, as it were, 



BONES. 21 

round all its parts. This general statement of the 
organs composing the human body is sufficiently 
minute for our present purpose. 



CHAPTEE I. 
<£f tfje ascites. 

Description of Spinal Column— Unites the Nerves of Intellect and Sensation 
—Injuries of Spine and Brain more frequent in Mature Age than in Youth 
—Cause— Elasticity of the Spinal Column— Misshapen and Crooked Spin'es 
—How produced— Sternum, or Breast Bone— True Ribs— Floating Ribs— 
The Humerus, or Upper Arm — How attached to the Scapula, or Blade 
Bone — The Pelvis — Description of. 

The bones are the organs of support to the 
animal frame, supplying strength and solidity to 
the entire fabric. They afford points of connec- 
tion to the numerous muscles, and are admirably 
adapted, by their structure and divisions, to fulfil 
every movement which tends to the preservation 
of the creature, or conduces to its welfare. 

The adult human skeleton is composed of 
two hundred and fourteen distinct bones, which 
are divided into four classes as follows : 1st, the 
bones of the head ; 2d, the bones of the trunk ; 
3d, the bones of the upper extremities ; and 4th, 
the bones of the lower extremities. 

The following plate presents a fkont 
view of the human skeleton : 



Fig. 1. 




BONES. 23 

1. 1. The spinal column, (24 bones.) 

2. The shall. 

3. The lower jaw. 

4. The sternum, or breast bone. 

5. The ribs, (12 on each side.) 

6. 6. The cartilages, or gristle by which the ribs 
are united to the sternum. 

7. The clavicle, or collar bone. 

8. The humerus, or upper arm. 

9. The shoulder joint. 

10. The radius, or outside bone of the lower arm. 

11. The ulna, or inside bone of the lower arm. 

12. The elbow joint. 

13. The carpus, or wrist, (composed of eight 
distinct bones, arranged in two rows.) 

14. The hand. 

15. The haunch bone. 

16. The lower part of the spine, (named the 
sacrum.) 

17. The hip joint. 

18. The femur, or thigh bone. 

19. The patella, or knee pan. 

20. The knee joint. 

21. The fibula, or small bone of the leg. 

22. The tibia, or large bone of the leg. 
. 23. The ankle joint. 

24. The foot. 

25 and 26. The ligaments, or white cords con- 
necting the ribs with the breast bone and with 
each other. 

27, 28, 29. Ligaments of the shoulder, elbow, 
and wrist. 



24 BONES. 

31. Ligaments of the hip joint. 

34. Ligaments of the patella, knee and ankle. 

35 and 36, as above. 

The spinal column, (I. 1,) more intimately con- 
nected with the objects embraced in these pages 
than other portions of the skeleton, is in man a 
vertical, elastic pillar, descending from the outer 
base of the skull to the lower part of the back. 
It is composed of twenty -four bones, which have 
been termed vertebra^,- or turning bones, (from 
verto, to turn,) having the power to move, by 
means of intervening cartilages between each, 
almost in any direction. 

This movable column performs several distinct 
offices in the system ; it forms the great bond of 
union between the bones of the skull and those of 
the upper and lower extremities, while at the same 
time, by means of the spinal cord or marrow, con- 
tained in its lengthened canal, it unites the nerves 
of the brain (of intellect and sensation) with those 
more particularly the agents in the production of 
muscular motion and sensation in the trunk and 
extremities, proceeding immediately from the ner- 
vous matter lodged within the spine. 

The adaptation of means to the end is in no part 
of the human system more perfectly displayed, than 
in the construction of the spinal column : each 
bone is so formed as to be capable of an indepen- 
dent movement, while the whole number, locked 
within each other, yet each one moving as upon a 
pivot, are braced, held together, and supported by 



BONES. 25 

two strong ligaments (posterior and anterior) pass- 
ing along their whole length vertically, assisted 
by six others in a lateral direction, giving strength 
and mobility to enable them to assume the various 
attitudes and movements of the body ; and elas- 
ticity, by the cartilages interposed between each 
bone, to guard the tender organ contained in the 
canal within them, as well as the brain, against 
concussion. Injuries of the spine and brain, from 
falls or blows, are much more frequent in mature 
age than in youth. In early life the cartilages 
placed between each spinal bone easily yield to 
the force of a fall or blow, and in shortening the 
column, at the same time diffuse the effects of the 
concussion before they reach the brain ; in more 
advanced life the cartilages dry and harden, the 
spine becomes a fixed, not a flexible, pillar, and 
the effect of falls proceeds along the cord directly 
to the brain. 

The elasticity of the spinal column, and its 
lateral and vertical pliancy, favor the action of 
the various muscles with which it is protected and 
moved ; and scarcely any thing is, unfortunately, 
more common than to see a misshapen and crooked 
spine, produced by the predominance of action 
given to a certain set of muscles, to the prejudice 
of the rest, in the assumption of those awkward 
attitudes which are too often neglected in early 
life. 

Attached to the spinal column, posteriorly, are 

the twelve ribs, seven of which, named true ribs, 

have also an attachment to the sternum or breast 
2 



26 BONES. 

bone ; the remaining five have no anterior attach- 
ment save by cartilages to each other, and to the 
last of the true ribs ; they are called floating ribs. 
(No. 5, fig. 1.) At the upper portion of the ster- 
num or breast bone, the clavicle or collar bone is 
situated, which extends around the lower portion 
of the neck, and is inserted into the movable bone 
immediately behind, and forming the shoulder 
joint, termed the scapula or blade bone. 

In a socket formed in the latter, is the ball or 
head of the upper arm, furnished with a double 
movement, the one arising from its joint, the other 
from the flexibility of the scapula, which moves in 
obedience to its muscles, at the posterior part of 
the chest. Whenever it is necessary to move the 
upper arm in a particular direction, (as rotatory,) 
the muscles attached to the scapula contract, and 
it is held as in a wedge, while the head of the 
upper arm bone plays in every direction in its 
socket. 

The humerus or upper arm, attached by its ball 
or head into the socket of the scapula or blade 
bone above described, is a long bone, receiving at 
its lower extremity the two bones of the lower or 
fore arm, the radius and ulna : the former, being 
the larger and outer bone, articulates with the 
bones which form the wrist joints ; the latter, the 
inner and smaller, forms a perfect hinge-like joint 
on the inner and upper part of the fore arm, by 
which it is enabled to rotate itself on the former. 

At the lower portion of the spine is situated the 
pelvis or basin, composed of four bones, the in- 



BONES. 27 

nominatum or nameless bones, and the sacrum 
and coccyx, the lowest portions of the spinal 
column. The sides of the pelvis are formed of the 
haunch bones, (No. 15, fig. 1,) at the base of which 
are sockets that receive the heads or balls of the 
thigh bones, (No. 18, fig. 1,) to the extremities of 
which are attached the lower bones of the leg, 
tibia (No. 22, fig. 1) and fibula, (No. 21, fig. 1,) 
the former being the larger of the two. 

With this limited anatomical description of the 
principal bones forming the human skeleton — the 
passive agents of locomotion — we shall proceed, in 
the following chapter, to describe the muscles by 
which they are set in motion and propelled in 
every direction. 



CHAPTER II. 
Jfcuscles. 

Symmetry of Form dependent on Muscular Development — Five Hundred and 
Twenty-seven Muscles— Various Kinds of Muscle — How shaped — Attach- 
ment between the Tendons and Bones— Muscles formed in Layers — Volun- 
tary and Involuntary Muscles— Front View of the Muscles— Description- 
Rupture of the Achilles Tendon in Dancing — Difficulty of Reunion. 

The symmetry of the form, its strength, and 
power, will be proportioned to the perfection of 
the muscular development ; nor can the natural 
laws which pegulate the latter be broken, except at 
4he sacrifice of proportional beauty and the cer- 
tain derangement of physical constitution. 

Five hundred and twenty-seven of these motor 
agents, embracing all the lean, fleshy portions of 
the body, enter in the human formation, existing 
in various forms, taking directions the most op- 
posite, yet wisely and beautifully adapted to the 
specific purposes for which they are destined. 

They are found in one place directly longi- 
tudinal, terminating at one end in a white, fibrous 
cord, termed a tendon, by which they are attached 
to the bones upon which they exert their lever 
power. 

In some parts of the system they radiate like a 
fan, their attachments to the bones being spread 
over a wide space ; some are shaped like the half 
circle of a sun, with their fibres radiating to a ten- 
don on one side ; others like a quill, with a strong 



MUSCLES. 29 

central tendon, to which the fibres radiate on either 
side. 

So firm is the attachment between the tendons 
and the bones to which they are united, that frac- 
tures will take place in the latter while their union 
with the former remains undisturbed. 

To protect the muscles in their numerous rami- 
fications, and preserve them unimpaired by that 
constant action which, commencing with the dawn 
of existence, terminates only in death, they are 
formed in separate layers, and invested by a mem- 
branous sheath, fatty matter being interposed be- 
tween each layer, at times between individual 
muscles, to prevent the friction, which might other- 
wise- cause irritation, inflammation, and ultimately 
diseased action in the moving powers. 

They are divided into two general classes, volun- 
tary and involuntary ; the former being under the 
direction of the will, as those which move the ex- 
tremities and trunk of the body ; the latter those 
of organic life, as the muscles of the intestines, 
heart, bladder, and internal organs of generation. 

The diaphragm muscle, or midriff, which divides 
the stomach and abdomen from the lungs, belongs 
also to the latter class. In its shape it may be 
compared to an inverted dish or bowl, its con- 
vexity being turned upward towards the thorax 
or chest, and its concavity covering the upper part 
of the abdomen. 

The accompanying plate presents an an- 
terior OR FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCULAR SYS- 
TEM : 



Fin. 2. 




MUSCLES. 81 

1. The forehead swell of the Occipito Frontinalis, 
or back and front muscle of the head. This muscle 
arises from the lowest bone of the head, posteriorly, 
and is inserted by tendons into the upper edge of 
the bony socket which contains the eyes. (See 
side view, No. 1.) 

2. Orbicularis Palpebrarum, or muscles surround- 
ing the orbits of the eyelids. This muscle sur- 
rounds the bony socket of the eye and the eyelids : 
it arises from the internal angle of the forehead, 
and is inserted into the eyelid by a short tendon. 
(See side view ISTo. 2.) 

Use — To close the eye involuntarily. 

3. Levator Labii Superior is, or elevator of the 
upper lip, arises from the lower portion of the 
socket of the eye, and is inserted into the upper 

up. 

Use — To elevate the upper lip. 

4. Zygomaticus Major, or large yoke muscle, so 
named from its position near the yoke-like process 
of the cheek bone, (from zygoma, a yoke,) arises 
from the above process of the cheek bone, and is 
inserted into the angle of the mouth. 

Use — To pull the angle of the mouth upward 
and outward, as in laughing. 

5. Zygomaticus Minor, small yoke muscle, fre- 
quently wanting. 

6. Masseter, (from massaomai, to chew,) the 
chewing muscle, arises from the upper jaw and 
the yoke-like process of the cheek bone, and is in- 
serted into the posterior part of the lower jaw. It 
is broad, one of the most powerful among the 



32 MUSCLES. 

muscles, and is inserted by many tendons or cords 
at its terminations. 

Use — To draw the upper and lower jaws forci- 
bly together, bruising and grinding the food be- 
tween them. (See side view No. 3.) 

7. Orbicularis Oris, or round muscle of the 
mouth, completely surrounds the mouth, having 
neither origin nor insertion, excepting a slender 
fibrous attachment to the lower part of the nose. 

Use — To produce a complete closure of the 
mouth. 

8. Depressor Labii Inferioris, or depressor of the 
under lip, arises from the anterior portion of the 
lower jaw, and is inserted into muscle No. 7 of the 
lower lip. 

Use — To draw the lip outward and downward. 

9. Platisma Myoides, spreading or plate muscle, 
arises from the external portion of the upper arm 
near the shoulder joint and the collar bone near 
its union with that of the breast, and running up 
and covering the side of the neck, is inserted into 
the angle of the mouth and side of the chin. 

Use — To draw the chin and side of the face 
towards the shoulder. This muscle, at times, be- 
comes permanently contracted, the side of the 
head lies on the shoulder, and the face looks half 
upward. 

10. Deltoid, or triangular muscle, (from Delta, 
the Greek letter,) forms the external convexity of 
the upper arm ; it arises from the outer part of 
the collar bone, the whole elevation or spine of the 
blade bone, and is inserted by tendons into the 



MUSCLES. 33 

middle and outward portion of the upper arm. 
(See side view No! 6.) 

Use. — It is the great elevator of the upper arm ; 
by means of its numerous tendons, it carries the 
arm backward and forward so as to range within 
a considerable segment of a circle. 

11. Pectoralis Major, or large breast muscle, 
arises from two thirds of the collar bone nearest 
its junction with that of the breast, one half of the 
latter, and from the cartilages of the first seven or 
true ribs, and is inserted by a broad tendon into 
the middle and interior part of the upper arm. 

Use — To draw the arm toward the breast and aid 
in raising the shoulder ; to assist also in expand- 
ing the chest, by drawing the breast bone and ribs 
upward and outward. This muscle exerts a 
powerful influence in the animal economy. (See 
side view.) 

12. Latissimus Dorsi, or broadest back muscle, 
arises from nearly the whole length of the spine, 
and is inserted into the ridge of the upper arm 
bone. 

Use — To bring the arm to the side. 

14. Biceps Flexor Cuhiti, or two-headed contract- 
ing muscle of the arm, arises by one head, from 
the superior edge of the collar bone near the 
shoulder joint, and by the second, from the socket 
of the shoulder joint ; it is inserted into the radius 
or outward bone of the lower arm. (See side 
view No. 9.) 

Use — To bend the lower arm at the elbow 
joint 

2* 



34 MUSCLES. 

15. Triceps, or three-headed muscle, arises by 
two heads, from the upper and posterior part of 
the upper arm, and by a third from the inferior 
border of the blade bone ; it is inserted into the 
middle of the inner bone of the fore arm, near the 
elbow joint. 

Use — To extend the lower arm. 

16. Supinator Radii Longus, or long muscle of 
the outer bone of the lower arm, arises from below 
the middle of the upper arm, and is inserted into 
the lowest part of the outward lower arm bone 
near the wrist. 

Use — To extend the lower arm and open the 
hand and fingers. 

18. Flexor Carpi Eadialis Longior, or long bend- 
ing muscle of the wrist and fore arm, arises from 
the lower and inner part of the upper arm, and is 
inserted into the first long bone in the palm of the 
hand, which joins the index or first finger. 

Use — To assist with other muscles in bending 
the wrist and fingers. 

19. Flexor Communis Digitorum, or common 
extender of the fingers, arises from the upper end 
of the inner fore arm bone, and is inserted into the 
second bones of the fingers. 

Use — To bend the fingers. 

20. Annular Ligament. A ligamentous band at 
the wrist joint, which surrounds all the tendons of 
the lower arm, and holds them in a proper posi- 
tion. 

21. Palmar Fascia, or fascia of the hand. A 
tendinous expansion on the palm of the hand in 



MUSCLES. 35 

all directions, imparting to its numerous bones pro- 
tection and flexibility. 

22. Obliquus Externum Abdominis, or external 
oblique muscle of the abdomen, arises from the 
external surface of the eight lower ribs, and is in- 
serted into the haunch bone and the anterior 
bones at the lower portion of the abdomen. 

Use — To bend the body and draw the ribs out- 
ward. 

26. Psoas Magnus, (from psoai, the loins,) the 
large muscle of the loins, arises from the last of the 
back and four upper loin vertebrae, or bones of the 
spine ; uniting with the flank muscle, the tendon 
arising from the union is inserted into the interior 
and upper protuberance of the thigh bone. 

Use — To bend the lower limbs of the body at 
the hip joints. 

27. Adductor Longus, (from adducere, to draw 
to,) the long, drawing muscle of 'the thigh, arises 
by a round tendon from the front bone of the 
pelvis or bony basin at the lower end of the spine, 
and is inserted about the middle and inner portion 
of the thigh bone. 

Use — To bend the thigh towards the pelvis, and 
to rotate the limb outwards. 

28. JSartorius, or tailor's muscle, (from sartus, a 
tailor,) arises from the upper and outward por- 
tion of the haunch bone, crosses the upper third 
of the thigh obliquely, and is inserted into the 
large bone (tibia) of the fore leg, at its inner and 
upper part. 

Use — To draw the leg upon the thigh and the 



36 MUSCLES. 

latter on the haunch bone, at the same time carry- 
ing the leg across to the opposite side, giving rise 
to the cross-legged position of tailors — hence its 
name. 

29. Rectus Femoris, or straight muscle of the 
thigh, arises from the haunch bone, and is inserted 
into the upper border of the knee pan. 

Use — To draw one leg over the other. 

30. Vastus Externus, or outward large muscle, 
arises from the outward ridge of the knee pan, 
and is inserted into the upper extremity of the 
thigh bone. 

Use — To extend the leg upon the thigh. 

31. Vastus Internus, or internal large muscle, 
arises from the outward edge of the knee pan, and 
is inserted into the thigh bone. 

Use — Nearly the same as that of its fellow. 

32. Tendon of the knee pan. 

33. Gastrocnemius, (from two Greek words sig- 
nifying belly and leg,) or muscle composing the 
calf of the leg, arises by tendons from the two 
prominences at the lower end of the thigh bone, 
(the inner tendon being the longest,) which, unit- 
ing together, form the calf of the leg. It is inserted 
by means of the Achilles tendon (sometimes torn 
asunder in dancing) to the hinder part of the heel. 

Use — To lift the heel and raise the body. (See 
side view No. 14.) 

34. Tibialis Anticus, outward muscle of the 
outward fore leg bone, arises from the upper two 
thirds of that bone, and is inserted into the instep 
bone attached to the bones forming the great toe 



M USCLES. 37 

Use — To draw the foot inwards when necessary, 
and to extend it when walking. (See side view 
No. 17.) 

36. Tendons of the long muscle of the lower leg 
bones. This muscle arises from the head of the 
large and upper three fourths of the small bone of 
the fore leg. It passes through the annular ring 
(20), and is inserted into the second and third bone 
of the great toe nearest the heel. 

Use — To bend the foot at the ankle joint, and to 
extend the toes. 

There is a striking peculiarity observable in the 
mode of insertion of the tendons attached to the 
long muscle of the lower leg bones. The tendon 
expands into a broad muscular sheet over the first 
of the bones of the toes. This sheet again divides 
into three slips, the middle division of which is 
inserted into the second of the bones of the toes, 
while the two lateral, or side divisions, are inserted 
into the third of the toe bones, thus giving a hinge- 
like flexibility, combined with strength, to each 
joint of the toes. 

The longer we contemplate the mechanical exe- 
cution of this flexible yet powerful structure, the 
more is our admiration excited at the vast display 
of means acting harmoniously together to accom- 
plish a perfect end. 

The following plate presents a side view 
OF SOME of the more important muscles in 
the human frame : 



Fig. 8. 




MUSCLES. 89 

1. Occipito Frontinalis. (See front view No. 1.) 

2. Orbicular Muscle of the Eyelids, (orbicularis 
palpebrarum.) (See front view No. 2.) 

3. Masseter (chewing) Muscle. (See front view 
No. 6.) 

4. Sternum and Collar Bone Muscle, (sterno 
cleido mastoideus.) This muscle, as its Latin 
name implies, arises from the breast and collar 
bones. It is a powerful and broad muscle, and 
passes obliquely from its double origin (the breast 
and collar bones) to the occipital or posterior 
lower bone of the head, where it is inserted behind 
the ear. (See back view No. 6.) 

Use — To assist in bowing the head forward. 

5. Levator Anguli Scapula?, (lifting muscle of the 
scapulae.) This muscle arises from the posterior 
portions of the four upper vertebras of the neck, 
and is inserted into the scapula or blade bone at 
the root of its spine. 

Use. — Its name explains its use, that of elevating 
the angle of the scapula or blade bone. 

6. Deltoid. (See front view No. 10.) 

7. Sterno Hyoideus, breast bone and tongue 
muscle. This muscle arises from the posterior 
surface of the sternum or breast bone at its upper 
part and the inner extremity of the clavicle or col- 
lar bone. 

Use — To depress the tongue and windpipe. 

8. Great Pectoral, Pectoralis Major. (See front 
view No. 11.) 

9. Biceps Flexor Cuhiti. (See front view No. 13.) 

10. Serratus Magnus, or large saw-like muscle of 



40 MUSCLES* 

the trunk. This muscle arises from the last two 
vertebrae of the neck and the two upper dorsal or 
back vertebrae immediately below the former ; it 
is inserted into the posterior surfaces of the second, 
third, fourth, and fifth ribs. 

Use — To draw the ribs upward and expand the 
chest. 

11. Great Dorsal, or back muscle. Latissimus 
Dorsi 

12. Gluteii, or buttock muscle. (See back view 
Kos. 27 and 28.) 

13. Biceps Flexor Cruris, or double-headed mus- 
cle of the leg. This muscle arises from a tuberosity 
in the ischium or front bone of the basin or pelvis, 
at the lower end of the spine, and is inserted into 
the head of the tibia or large bone of the leg (shin 
bone). It forms the outer ham string. 

Use — To evert the leg when partly bent. 

14. Gastrocnemius. (See front view No. 33.) 

15. Rectus, straight muscle of the thigh. This 
muscle arises by tendons from the anterior and 
lower spine of the haunch bone. It is inserted by 
a broad tendon into the patella or knee pan, of 
which it may be said to form a part. 

Use. — By being attached to the haunch bone of 
the pelvis, and inserted into the knee pan, (the in- 
ferior ligament of which is fixed in the tibia or 
large bone of the leg,) the "rectus" serves to 
balance the trunk on the lower extremities. 

16. Triceps Extensor Cruris, or three-headed 
muscle of the leg. This muscle, having three di- 
visions, surrounds the whole posterior part of the 



MUSCLES. 11 

" femur " or thigh bone, with the exception of a 
rough line, termed the linea aspera. All its divis- 
ions arise from the inner and outer borders of the 
patella or knee pan, and are inserted into the 
upper end of the thigh bone on its posterior sur- 
face. 

Use — To extend the leg upon the thigh, and 
gain great increase of power by its attachment to 
the knee pan, which acts as a fulcrum. It steadies 
the thigh bone upon the leg. 

17. Tibialis Anticus, or muscle of the large bone 
of the leg, arises from the upper two thirds of the 
tibia, and is inserted into the "cuneiform" or 
wedge-like bones of the heel and one of the bones 
of the great toe. (See front view No. 34.) 

Use — To flex the foot and preserve it flat while 
walking. 

18. Soleus (sole) Muscle. This muscle arises 
from the upper portion of the fibula or small 
bone of the leg, and from the middle third of the 
tibia or large bone of the leg. Its fibres join the 
tendo Achillis, by which it is inserted into the 
heel. It forms a portion of that muscular develop- 
ment termed the calf of the leg. 

Use — To draw up the heel, and by continued 
action in concert with the gastrocnemius, to raise 
the entire body. 

19. Tendo Achillis, the tendon by which the 
gastrocnemius muscle is attached to the heel. 

POSTERIOR VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 
(on the following page.) 



Fio. 4. 




MUSCLES. 48 

1. Complextis. Muscle of many attachments. 
Use — To elevate the head and chin. 

2. Splenius. 

Use — To raise the eyebrow. 

3. The Masseter, see 6, fig. 2. (See side view 
No. 4.) 

4. Sterno Cleido Mastoideus, or breast and collar 
bone muscle, arises from the breast and collar 
bone, passes obliquely backward and upward, and 
is inserted into the temporal bone behind the ear, 
and into the lower and back bone of the head. 
(See side view No. 4.) 

Use — -To bend the head forwards. The collar 
bone portion, acting more forcibly than that arising 
from the breast bone, gives stability to the head in 
carrying heavy weights. 

5. Trapezius, (from trapezium, a triangle,) or 
triangular muscle, arises from the superior portion 
of the lower back bone of the head, from the last 
lower spinous joint of the neck, and from all 
those of the back, and is inserted into the collar 
bone and shoulder blade. 

Use — To draw the shoulder backward. 

6. Back view of the deltoid muscle. (See front 
view No. 10, fig. 2.) 

7. Triceps Extensor. (See front view No. 15, 
fig. 2.) 

8. Tendinous portion of the above. 

9. Anterior edge of. 

10. Supinator Radii Longus. (See No. 16, fig. 2.) 

11. Extensor Communis Digitorum, or common 
extender of the fingers, arises from the lower part 



44 MUSCLES. 

of the upper arm, at its external protuberance, 
and divides at the wrist into four tendons, which 
are inserted into the four fingers. 

Use — To open the fingers. It is the antagonis- 
tic muscle to the flexor communis digitorum. 
(No. 17, fig. 2.) 

12. Extensor Ossis Melacarpi Pollicis, or extend- 
ing muscle of the wrist and fingers, arises from 
the middle of the inner fore-arm bone, and is in- 
serted into the long bone which extends from the 
wrist to the thumb. 

Use — To extend the wrist and thumb. 

13. Tendons of No. 17. 

14. The insertion of the Triceps, or three-headed 
muscle. (See No. 15, fig. 1.) 

15. Extensor Carpi Ulnaris, or extending muscle 
of the ulna and wrist, arises from the lower exter- 
nal protuberance of the upper arm and two thirds 
of the inner bone of the lower arm. It is inserted 
into the long bone which extends from the wrist 
to the little finger. 

Use — To extend the wrist and little finger. 

16. Extensor Communis Digitorum. (See No. 17.) 

17. Latissimus Dor si. (See No. 12, fig. 2.) 

18. Tendinous origin of the above. 

19. Obliquus Externus. (See No. 12, fig. 2.) 

20. Gluteus Medius, or middle hip muscle, arises 
from the outer ridge of the haunch bone, four 
fifths of its length, and is inserted into the outer 
protuberance of the thigh bone near the hip joint. 

Use — To rotate the thigh outward. 

21. Gluteus Maximus, or large hip muscle, arises 



MUSCLES. 45 

from the ridge of the haunch bone and the lowest 
portion of the spine, and is inserted into the out- 
ward lower protuberance of the thigh bone ; its 
broad tendons cover the outer portion of the 
thigh. 

Use — To turn the thigh outward, and assist in 
carrying the leg forward. The above two muscles, 
with some others, form the posterior region. 

22. Biceps Flexor Cruris, or two-headed contract- 
ing muscle of the leg, arises by two heads, one from 
a prominence in the ischium, (the bone on which 
we sit,) the other from the upper and outer por- 
tion of the thigh bone ; uniting, the muscle is in- 
serted by a tendon, at the head of the smaller 
bone of the leg. This muscle forms the outer 
ham string. 

Use — To evert the leg when partially con- 
tracted. 

23. Semi Tendinosus, or half tendinous muscle, 
has a similar origin to the first described head of 
the biceps, and is inserted into the inner and upper 
part of the large bone of the leg. 

Use — To bend the leg at the knee joint. 

24. 25. Gastrocnemius. (See No. 33, fig. 2.) 
26. Tendo Achillis, or Achilles tendon, is the 

continuous tendon of the above large muscle, and 
is inserted into the hind part of the heel. It is 
the most powerful tendon of the leg, will lift not 
only the heel but the whole body. It is at times 
ruptured in violent athletic exercises and in 
dancing. Eeunion is rarely if ever accomplished, 



46 MUSCLES. 

and the muscular power of that portion of the leg 
is destroyed. 

The eighty-two muscles delineated in the above 
views of a portion of the muscular system, will 
enable us to enter more clearly on the physiology 
and pathology of these great moving powers ; 
some of which, as the flexors, bend the body and 
extremities in every direction ; others, as the ex- 
tensors, stretch out to their utmost limits the bones 
to which they are attached ; while a third set, the 
supinators, maintain the muscular equilibrium of 
the machine in its most natural and easy position. 



CHAPTER III. 
iWuscles etftiftfnuetr. 

Importance of the Muscular System— The Vital Stream dependent upon lt» 
Contractions— The Arts would perish if Animal Organization were de- 
prived of Muscularity — Muscular Tissue — Muscles of Organic Life— Of Ani- 
mal Life — The latter termed Striped Muscles — Difference between the 
Muscles of Animal and Organic Life— Shortening of Muscle when it con- 
tracts — Animal Heat generated by Muscular Contraction — Sound pro- 
duced by the Contraction of a Muscle — The Power of Muscles to contract 
dependent upon Two Influences — Influence of the Nerves on Muscular 
Contractility — The Great Importance of Muscular Agency — The best Singer, 
or Elocutionist— Necessity of Using the Vocal Muscles — Essential Character- 
istic of Muscular Fibres — Voluntary Muscles dependent for their Action 
upon the Nerves of the Brain — Involuntary Mnscles supplied with Nerves 
from the Spinal Marrow — Voluntary Muscles dependent for their Contrac- 
tility upon the Mind— Graceful Movement arises from a well-balanced 
Connection — The Ravels — Ole Bull — Jenny Lind — Madame Sontag — In the 
Exercise of the Voluntary Muscles the Rapidity of their Contractions has 
Scarcely a Maximum— The Hare — Carrier Pigeon — Race Horse — Uniformity 
between the Muscular and Nervous Systems essential to the Perfection and 
Endurance of Power— A sound and regular Museular Contraction neces- 
sary to Digestion — Few, if any, Muscular Actions are Single — All Muscu- 
lar Tissue retains its Power of Contractility for a short time after Death — 
Antoine Le Blanc, the Murderer of the Sayre Family, at Morristown — A 
Convict executed at Glasgow. 

So important is the muscular system to the hu- 
man frame, that no function of animal life can be 
performed without its aid. 

The vital stream could not pursue its serpentine 
course to the utmost limits of the system, and 
again return to its source, in opposition to the ac- 
knowledged laws of gravitation, without muscular 
contraction. "Were the muscles which draw the 
ribs upwards and outwards, thereby giving expan- 



48 MUSCLES. 

sion to the chest, deprived of their power, the animal 
would perish from suffocation. In vain would the 
agriculturist essay to till his land, the sports- 
man attempt to pursue his game, the boatman 
to propel his boat, the woodman to clear the trees 
of the forest, if deprived of the lever power pro- 
duced by muscular contractions. The arts would 
perish, the material world become a wilderness, 
and chaos again return, were it possible to deprive 
living, animal organization of its muscular power. 

All muscular tissue consists of an assemblage of 
minute fibres. The muscles of organic life differ 
essentially from those of animal life, in respect to 
the appearance and arrangement of these minute 
fibres. Those of organic life, or the unstriped 
muscles, as they are also called, consist of Httle 
fibres, which, in their most perfect state, are rlat, 
from 1-4700 to 1-3100 of an inch broad, very clear, 
granular, and brittle. Such fibres of organic muscle 
constitute the contractile coat of the lower half of 
the oesophagus or gullet, of the stomach and intes- 
tines, of the urinary and gall bladders, of the 
trachea or windpipe, and the pregnant uterus. 

The muscles of animal life, or striped muscles, 
embrace all the muscles whose movements are 
subject to the will, together with the heart, the 
upper part of the gullet, and the pharynx. These 
muscles are composed of fleshy bundles, encased 
in coverings of fibro-cellular tissue, by which each 
is connected with, and isolated from, those adja- 
cent to it. Each bundle is again divided into 
smaller ones, similarly ensheathed and similarly 



MUSCLES. 49 

divisible, and so on through an uncertain grada- 
tion, till, just beyond the reach of the unaided 
eye, we arrive at the primitive fasciculi, or ultimate 
muscular fibres, as they are called. They present 
a striped appearance when seen through the mi- 
croscope, and have a diameter of from 1-200 to 
1-500 of an inch. Each ultimate fibre in turn 
consists of little cylindriform filaments about 
1-1800 of an inch in diameter, called ultimate or 
primitive fibrils. It is upon these ultimate fibrils 
that muscular contractility depends. 

The principal difference between the muscles of 
animal and organic life is therefore two-fold : 1st, 
with regard to structure, the fibres of the former 
are arranged in bundles, while those of the latter 
are not ; and 2d, with regard to appearance, the 
ultimate fibres of the former are striped, while 
those of the latter present a uniform color. 

When a muscle contracts, a simple, uniform, 
simultaneous and steady shortening of each fibre 
composing it takes place. What each ultimate 
fibre or fibril loses in length it gains in thickness : 
the contraction is a change of form, not of size, 
and is not attended with diminution of bulk from 
condensation of the tissue. This has been proved 
by causing a mass of muscles to contract in a vessel 
full of water, with which a fine perpendicular grad- 
uated tube communicates. Any increase or dimi- 
nution of the size of the contracting muscles 
should affect the level of the water in the tube ; 
but the level is found to be the same whether the 

muscle be contracted or not. 
3 



50 MUSCLES. 

Again we notice that, when muscles firmly con- 
tract, they appear to swell up and become rounder, 
more prominent, and harder than previously. 
This muscular hardness accompanying firm con- 
tractions is not produced by any condensation or 
increased solidity of the muscular tissue, but it is 
mainly due to the increased tension of each of the 
primitive fibres, a tension proportionate to the 
mechanical resistance to be overcome by the con- 
traction. 

When no resistance is offered, as when the ten- 
don of a muscle is cut off, we do not perceive 
any increase of hardness during contraction ; but, 
on the contrary, the muscular tissue seems to be 
even softer, more extensile, and less elastic than 
in its uncontracted state. 

Another important property of muscular tissue 
is that animal heat is generated by the contraction 
of muscles. Becquerel and Breschet, two eminent 
physiologists, found that about 1° of heat was 
produced by each forcible contraction of the biceps 
muscle of a man's arm, and that the temperature 
of the muscle increased 2° when the actions were 
continued for some time. 

Sound is also produced when muscles contract 
forcibly ; and the loudness of it is directly depend- 
ent upon the force and quickness of the contrac- 
tion and the number of fibres that act together or 
simultaneously. Any person can readily illustrate 
this fact by placing the. tip of the little finger in the 
ear, and then making the muscle of the thumb 
contract rapidly, when a low shaking or rumbling 



MUSCLES. 51 

sound will be heard. In this case the sound pro 
duced by the muscular contraction is conducted 
through the substance of the hand and ringer to 
the organ of hearing. 

The power of the muscles to contract is closely 
dependent upon two different influences : 1st, the 
influence of the blood ; 2d, that of the nerves. 
Stenson first pointed out that muscles lose their 
power of motion if the current of arterial blood 
to them be cut off by the application of ligature^ 
to the arteries, and this fact has been fully con- 
firmed by others. It is therefore certain that the 
arterial blood undergoes in the muscles some 
change, which, while it gives the blood the venous 
character, renders it unfit to maintain in the mus- 
cles their contractile property ; or, in other words, 
that the property of contractility requires for its 
perfect preservation the constant action of arterial 
blood upon the muscular fibre. 

2. Influence of the Nerves upon Muscular Contrac- 
tility. — The nerves are not only the organs 
through which the will operates upon the muscles 
to produce contractions and relaxations at the 
pleasure of the sentient being, but they also exert 
an important influence upon the power of the mus- 
cular contractions. Of two individuals possessing 
precisely similar muscular developments, the one 
may excel the other in feats of strength, on ac- 
count of a difference in the constitution of their 
nervous systems. 

The great importance of muscular agency is not 
only visible in the processes of locomotion, as in 



52 MUSCLES. 

walking, running, leaping, or dancing, but in im- 
parting force and expression to song, and power 
and splendor to oratory. 

• He will be the best singer or elocutionist, the 
audible perceptions of tune and time being equal, 
who frequently calls into action the muscular 
powers of the vocal muscles, those of the larynx 
and chest. It is not while sitting in an easy -chair 
that the force and expression necessary to form the 
master-spirits of oratory and song can ever be ac- 
quired: the vocalist, like the ploughman, must 
labor — he must sow the seeds if he expects to reap 
the harvest. Nature has supplied him with the 
necessary material : if, like an unskilful architect, 
he neglects to mould it into the proper form, the 
consequences are not to be charged to the account 
of nature, but to the wanton perversion of her gifts. 

The essential characteristic of the muscular fibre 
is its power of contractility, that is, of shorten- 
ing, so as to approximate its extremes towards 
each other, by a thickening or swelling in the cen- 
tre. Thus the muscle which arises from the upper 
arm, and is inserted into the outward bone of the 
fore arm, (No. 14, fig. 2, the biceps,) swells in its 
centre in obedience to volition and nervous stimu- 
lus, and the hand is raised by the contraction, 
through a curved line, towards the shoulder. 

A corresponding principle directs all the mus- 
cular contractile movements. 

It has been stated that the muscles are divided 
into two classes, voluntary and involuntary, or the 
muscles of animal and organic life ; the former 



MUSCLES. 58 

being those of the trunk and limbs, dependent for 
their action on the nervous stimulus arising from, 
the nerves of the brain, the latter on the influence 
of the nerves of the spinal marrow. Among the 
latter are the muscles of the heart, bladder, and 
intestines. 

The distinction is more fanciful than real. The 
voluntary muscles frequently act in opposition tc 
the will, as in excessive fits of passion, where the 
will has no power to restrain the violent contor- 
tions of the trunk and limbs ; or, if the brain suf- 
fers material injury, the action of the involuntary 
muscles — those of circulation, digestion, and res* 
piration — is suspended, if not destroyed. 

Appropriate stimulus to the voluntary or in- 
voluntary muscles produces contractility ; its ab- 
sence, relaxation. 

The voluntary muscles are doubtless dependent 
for most of their movements upon the mind. The 
more intimate and well-balanced the connection, 
the more beautiful and perfect will be the display 
of the former, as may be seen in the graceful 
movements of a Celeste, the astonishing gymnastic 
feats of the Ravels, the inimitable musical execu- 
tion of Ole Bull, and the never-equalled song of 
Jenny Lind or Sontag. 

No specific duration can be assigned for the con- 
tractility of a muscle ; in some cases, it is the in- 
verse ratio of its force. Thus in those energetic 
contractions where a concentration of great mus- 
cular force is required, as in raising heavy weights, 
pulling up the fibrous roots of trees, exerting 



54 MUSCLES. 

powerful force on an extended lever to raise a 
ponderous body, relaxation will be more imme- 
diate than in cases in which a lesser expenditure 
of force is necessary. 

In the exercise of the voluntary muscles, the 
rapidity of their contractions has scarcely a maxi- 
mum. In this attribute of muscularity, man is far 
inferior to some of the animal creation. 

What an immense number, what a countless 
variety, of muscular contractions are requisite to 
enable the timid hare to distance her pursuers, the 
carrier-pigeon to fly over hundreds of miles in a 
few hours, and the race-horse to gallop a mile per 
minute ! 

The muscular system, in reference to its strength 
and power, varies in individuals of a corresponding 
size ; the nervous system, of which we shall here- 
after treat, exerting considerable influence in rela- 
tion to these elements. 

Uniformity between the muscular and nervous 
systems is essential to a combination of perfection 
and endurance of power in the former. A mus- 
cular development inferior to the nervous distri- 
bution may, for a short period, produce great 
results, but the exhaustion of power will be rapid. 

Where the muscular greatly exceeds the nervous 
development, activity will be feeble, but strength 
more enduring. Persons thus constituted are 
fitted for continuous slow labor rather than for 
feats of activity and strength combined. 

Where strength, protection, and flexibility are 
most required, the muscular system is correspond- 



MUSCLES. 55 

ingly developed, as in the spine to which we have 
already alluded, the first developed portion of the 
bony skeleton in man ; the centre from which all 
the other parts are produced ; in its earlier forma- 
tion a mere cartilaginous cylinder surrounding and 
giving protection to the primary nervous develop- 
ments, but in more advanced years a slightly 
curved movable pillar, protected, strengthened, 
and flexed by a fleshy wall composed of six mus- 
cular layers. 

A portion of the muscles arising in this region, 
as the external oblique and some others, are com- 
mon to the abdomen ; their contraction assists in 
expelling the residuum of digestion from the 
bowels, bile from the gall bladder, the contents of 
the stomach when vomiting, mucus from the wind- 
pipe, and all irritating matter, in coughing or 
sneezing, from the nasal passages. 

A sound and regular contraction and relaxation 
of the abdominal muscles, including the diaphragm 
or midriff, (a muscle separating the stomach 
from the lungs,) by promoting in a mechanical way 
the passage of the bile into the duodenum or lower 
stomach, are essentials to a healthy digestion. 

Few, if any, muscular actions are single. It is 
by their combination that the most simple move- 
ments are performed. Thus, in lifting the hand 
to the head, the contracting muscles of the arm, 
Avrist, and fingers, act in concert. And in walk- 
ing, to a common observer so easy a process, 
nearly all the muscles of the system are called into 
action. 



56 MUSCLES. 

All muscular tissue retains its power of con- 
tractility for a snort time after death, if stimulus 
be applied, provided the nervous connection has 
not been dissevered by a fracture of the spinal 
column or any other important part. 

Thus, in applying the galvanic battery to exe- 
cuted criminals, the moment opposing points of 
particular nerves are touched by the galvanic fluid, 
the corresponding muscles are thrown into a state 
of the most' violent contraction, and the lifeless 
body exhibits muscular action exceeding in its 
seeming power that which was one of the attri- 
butes of life. A few years since, we saw the dead 
form of Antoine Le Blanc, the murderer of the 
Sayre family at Morristown, rTew-Jersey, after his 
just execution, submitted to the action of the gal- 
vanic pile. The moment distant nerves were sub- 
jected to its influence, as those of the head, trunk, 
and lower extremities, the executed criminal rose 
from his recumbent position, and with the blood 
gushing from the incisions made to lay open the 
nerves, apparently stared wildly on the multitude 
who were witnessing this display of science. The 
arms moved violently to and fro, the eyelids 
opened and shut, the breast heaved convulsively, 
a horrid smile at times played on the grim fea- 
tures of death, the legs contracted and extended 
with great force. This artificial existence, if such it 
may be called, so nearly resembled the reality, 
that the populace, ignorantly supposing vitality 
might be actually renewed, and the murderer again 
walk forth at midnight to imbrue his hands in the 



MUSCLES. 57 

blood of the aged, and send into unconscious death 
the sleep of youth, insisted in a voice not to be 
mistaken that the process should be no longer 
continued ; and the ghastly and mutilated remains 
of the culprit were committed to the silent earth. 

A similar result was obtained by a correspond- 
ing experiment on the dead body of a convict 
executed at Glasgow, in Scotland. 

The neck of the criminal, just below the lower 
bone of the head, was opened half an hour subse- 
quent to his execution, when one of the connect- 
ing wires from a galvanic battery was applied to 
the phrenic nerve (nerve of the diaphragm) near 
its origin in the medulla oblongata or oblong 
brain, at the top of the spinal column, and a second 
to the cartilage of the seventh rib. 

Full and laborious breathing was directly pro- 
duced ; the chest heaved and fell ; the action of 
the diaphragm, or midriff, forced out the abdomen, 
which receded as the muscle relaxed. The mo- 
tion was continued uninterruptedly during the 
whole time the galvanic fluid was applied. 

With the remarks in the preceding chapters on 
the structure and functions of the muscles, we pro- 
ceed in the next to consider their hygiene, or the 
means necessary to secure and perpetuate their 
healthful condition. 



s* 



CHAPTER IV. 
Muscles cmitimielr— SJjur Estate* 

Daring and Superhuman Feats of Activity — Appalling Scenes produced by the 
Freaks of Fashion — Belgian Giant— Chinese Porters— Turkish Carriers— 
The Functions of Organic Life — There is not a Solitary Function, fee- 
Practice makes Perfect — Mental and Physical Powers connected— Pinel — 
Aristocratic Grandees of Spain in its Insane Institutions — Organic Power 
and Action— The Gastrocnemius Muscle— The Boatman— The Clerk— The 
Copper or Blacksmith— Baneful Effects of Muscular Inactivity — Seden- 
tary, inactive Individuals become fat— Supposed to betoken Health — 
Supposition erroneous — How the Fat is produced — The Muscles of such 
Persons— A Limit in the Full Attainment of Growth and Power in a Muscle 
— Amount of Exercise necessary to insure vigorous Muscular Contrac- 
tility varies in different Individuals— The Effects of Over-exertion on the 
Animal Creation— The Horse — Irish Emigrants— Alcoholic Liquors — Beau- 
tiful Uniformity between the Laws of the Animate and Inanimate Worlds 
— Necessity of obeying the former, Absolute — The wild Enthusiasts of Hin- 
dostan— More familiar Examples in our Seminaries of Learning— Teachers 
in Public and Private Schools — Ward Schools progressing in Physical Ed- 
ucation—Yet Infants in the Elementary Knowledge—Scale graduating 
Seats and Desks— Mr. Paton— Fixed Position of the Muscles in Children — 
The System which prevails in our Schools— Physical Education — Greatest 
Luminaries of Intellect— Kestlessness of Children— The Seats or Benches in 
Schools — If a stooping Attitude be Maintained— By a similar Attitude the 
Seamstress, fee— The Treble Curvature. 

The daring and almost superhuman feats of ac- 
tivity and strength daily exhibited to public gaze 
teach us, in language perfectly intelligible to all 
classes of society, how much additional power may 
be imparted to the human family, individually and 
collectively, by a proper physical training of these 
powerful vital levers. Nor are we less forcibly 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 59 

warned by the appalling scenes produced by the 
wanton and heartless freaks of fashion and the per- 
version of natural laws, in the distorted spines, the 
contracted joints, and the compressed chests, how 
much suffering may be entailed on successive gen- 
erations by a neglect of muscular physical training; 
a visiting of the sins of the fathers upon the chil- 
dren unto the third and fourth generations ! 

If the Belgian giant could stand under and sup- 
port a weight of two tons; if the Chinese, prover- 
bially a weak people, can transport on their backs 
for many miles the enormous weight of six or eight 
hundred pounds ; if the Turks can carry their silks 
and teas, by a similar process, hundreds of miles ; 
what strength might not the muscles attain, what 
infinitely higher objects might they not accom- 
plish, under a thorough and progressive disci- 
pline !* 

* In travelling through the Republic of Mexico, some years 
since, we were much astonished at the strength, perseverance, 
and elasticity of muscle exhibited by the natives. 

A small race in stature, they travelled, burdened with packs 
of merchandise or produce, weighing two hundred pounds and 
upwards, from city to city, in less time than the same goods 
could have been transported on the backs of pack-mules. They 
would thus travel for hundreds of miles. 

By taking la vereda, as they are called, (by-paths,) they were 
enabled to accomplish a specific distance as quickly, and with as 
much ease, as we could travel it on our steeds. In ascending 
and descending the mountains, they would gain upon us. 

In the manner above stated, they convey goods from Tarn- 
pico to the city of Mexico, a distance of six hundred miles. At 
sea-ports, every imported commodity is conveyed to a place of 
deposit by the natives. We were much amused at seeing, for 



60 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

The functions of organic life are, in no inferior 
degree, dependent on muscular contractility, while 
the latter, strengthened by its own exertions, de- 
rives support and existence from the functional 
perfection of the organs to which it imparts 
power. The muscles of the heart and chest are 
increased in their contractions by exercise, and the 
vital stream flows through the system with in- 
creased rapidity, the chest expands to its most 
ample dimensions, the lungs become freely dilated, 
the blood is more fully oxygenized, and, circu- 
lating freely among the muscles to which it is 
originally indebted for this increased vitality, gives 
additional vigor to the moving agents in this great 
system of animal mechanics. 

There is not a solitary function in the animal 
economy which muscular exercise does not pro- 
mote, and inaction intercept or destroy. It was by 
a figure of speech which took a part for the whole, 
that the decree was pronounced which compelled 
humanity to earn its bread by the sweat of its 
brow ; in other words, by muscular exertion. This 
decree, issued by the fiat of Omnipotence, is a 
practical blessing rather than a curse. He that 



the first time, a native trotting away from a vessel with a bale 
of cotton upon his shoulder. 

In travelling through the Indian territory, we have also seen 
squaws carry packs of three hundred pounds upon their backs. 

The Indian has more elasticity and is more fleet in walking 
or running than any other portion of the human race. This 
wonderful combination of strength and elasticity is acquired at 
an early age, by a rude but constant training of the muscles. 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 61 

will not exercise shall not eat, is as emphatically 
inscribed on the physiological constitution of man 
as in the records of Holy Writ. 

Practice makes perfect, is the simple but true 
exposition of a law which governs the physical 
equally with the moral world.* 

* During a residence in the Southern States, we became 
acquainted with the fact that negroes tote (an expression used 
among them, synonymous with carry) all light articles and pack- 
ages of goods, to and from market or elsewhere, upon their 
heads, frequently for a distance of many miles. This is also 
the custom among the natives of Central America and the West 
Indies. In the latter country nearly all of the merchandise and 
produce is conveyed from one place to another in this manner. 
We have seen more than three hundred pounds conveyed upon 
the head of a negro, for many miles, to a plrce of deposit. 
Molyneux, the negro who some years since contended for the 
championship of the prize-fighting ring in Great Britain, with 
the celebrated Tom Cribb, had so exercised the deltoid, biceps, 
and other muscles of the upper arm, that the latter was as thick 
as the thigh of a middle-sized man. The force of his blow was 
such that, whenever he was able to get what the members of the 
ring term a " fair blow" at his antagonist, the latter fell, like a 
bullock beneath the stroke of a butcher's hammer, several yards 
from the spot where the blow was first struck. He was how- 
ever beaten by the superior science of Cribb, perhaps with a 
little unfairness on the part of the friends of the latter, who 
could not bear to see a colored man beat their champion. 

So hard was the muscular, development of this man, that his 
antagonist invariably laid bare his knuckles whenever he dealt 
one of his heavy blows on any part save the body of Molyneux. 

The muscles of the negro race, in the West India Islands moro 
especially, are not originally larger or more firm than those of 
the white races ; it is simply by training the organs they are able 
to accomplish such gigantic feats of strength. 

Thus it was with the celebrated Monsieur Gregoire, now 
amongst us, who, while very young, commenced the system of 



62 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

So strongly are the mental and physical powers 
connected, that the suspension of the former by 
some shock to the nervous system, at times, as in 
cases of insanity, can only be restored through 
the influence of muscular agency, strengthened by 
exercise. 

It is a well-known medical fact that, since the 
period when the great and humane physiologist, 
Pinel, burst asunder the fetters of the maniac and 
restored him to light, liberty, and exercise, the 
recoveries from insanity have exceeded all former 
belief. 

The aristocratic grandees in the insane institu- 
tions of Spain, whose hereditary pride, which nei- 
ther reason nor force can combat, forbids them 
to labor, rarely recover their intellectual powers ; 
while the humble peasant, who daily and vigor- 
ously exerts his muscles in manual labor or feats 
of activity, is quickly restored to reason. 

Organic power and action increase with the de- 
mands made upon them within a limited degree. 
This law, which governs the system generally, is 

training the muscles by exercise. We have seen this man ; his 
muscular system is prodigiously developed. He can carry a 
weight of one thousand pounds, support himself under the 
pressure of seventeen hundred pounds, kill a bullock with his 
powerful arm, and shiver a boulder stone into atoms with his 
clenched fist. He can strike a blow with a force equal to nine 
hundred pounds. Such feats of strength, almost superhuman, 
would seem incredible had they not been displayed to hundreds in 
this city, (New- York,) whose veracity is unimpeached and unim- 
peachable. Gregoire has never been equalled in this country, 
probably not in any other, for muscular force. 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 63 

particularly applicable to the muscular apparatus : 
when one of its levers is called into action it in- 
creases in thickness and power. The gastrocne- 
mius muscle, (No. 33, fig. 2,) forming the calf of 
the leg, is always large in constant and accom- 
plished dancers ; compared with the same muscle 
in the sedentary student, who scarcely rises from 
his chair to consume his ill-digested meal, it is like 
the coil of a strong rope by the side of a slender 
twine. 

In the boatman, whose constant occupation is 
rowing, the muscles of the back and arms are 
large, the chest is broad and open, the shoulders 
expanded, and the tout-ensemble presents a per- 
fect union of strength and health. Compare this 
fine muscular development with that of the clerk, 
bending from morn till night over his desk in a 
curved position, or even standing behind a coun- 
ter until the muscles are wearied under a constant 
sameness of position ; observe the feeble contractile 
power of the spinal muscles, the unusually con- 
tracted condition of those which circumscribe the 
cavity of the chest, the feeble pulsations arising 
from the want of a proper contracting force in the 
arteries, the general absence of vital energy in all 
the systems of organic life, and no further evidence 
will be requisite to establish the physiological 
truth that activity, energy, and strength in the 
muscles are essential to the healthy performance 
of the functions of organized beings ; that with- 
out these elements, called into action and sup- 
ported by bodily exercise, premature and feeble 



64 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

old age, perhaps death, will be the inevitable con- 
sequence. 

In bending the arm accustomed to great muscu- 
lar exertion, as that of the copper or blacksmith, 
a hard muscular swelling will be felt above the 
elbow joint in the inner and upper arm. In the 
individual who takes but little exercise, the mus- 
cles composing this group will be found flaccid, 
inert, and feeble : the additional power and size 
in the former arise from the constant action of 
the biceps and triceps muscles, (Nos. 14 and 15, 
fig. 2,) and the feebleness of the latter from the 
repose and inaction of these muscles. 

The baneful effects of muscular inactivity are 
observable not only in their influences on the 
organs of locomotion, but upon the brain, the 
lungs, and all the instruments of assimilative life ; 
the great vital functions of nutrition, circulation, 
and absorption languish, and a tendency to disease 
in the form of congestion or inflammation is the 
result. 

At times, sedentary, inactive individuals be- 
come fat, and this development of the adipose 
tissue is supposed by the inexperienced observer 
to betoken health and strength. No supposition 
can be more erroneous. This accumulation of fatty 
matter is produced mainly by a loss of the balance 
between the natural waste of the system and the 
supply in the shape of assimilated food, the indi- 
vidual consuming more food than his habits of life 
require, and the excess being deposited through- 
out the body in the form of fat. The muscles of 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 65 

such persons are soft and flaccid, and locomotion 
painful and oppressive. 

In the full attainment of the growth and power 
of the muscles in mature life, there is doubtless a 
limit beyond which muscular strength cannot 
be carried ; but by well-directed exercise and 
proper previous management, the maximum of 
muscular power may be retained until the decline 
of life. 

The amount of exercise necessary to insure an 
energetic and vigorous muscular contractility will 
greatly vary in different individuals ; the exertion 
which would give increased vigor to the strong 
muscular frame might, by exhaustion, weaken, if 
not destroy, the more feeble. 

The deposition of fresh elements from increased 
muscular action, acting on the circulation in the 
former case, would in the latter be exceeded by 
the loss of muscular force, power, and material. 
This effect of over-exertion may be seen daily in 
the animal creation, more especially in the attenu- 
ated frame of the horse, compelled to drag weights 
beyond his muscular power, or driven beyond the 
limits of his strength. The loss of muscular de- 
velopment, and consequently of power, is percep 
tible among our agriculturists, who, with unceas- 
ing perseverance, toil from morning until night, 
regardless of that excessive muscular exhaustion 
which is rapidly undermining the vital energies 
and sapping the foundations of life. 

From a similar cause nine tenths - of the Irish 
emigrants, to whose labors we are indebted for our 



66 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

canals and railroads, die between the ages of 
twenty and thirty-five years. The excessive use 
of alcoholic liquors, too often doubly deleterious 
from the poisonous ingredients mingled together 
by our grogsellers and sold under the name of 
brandy or gin, frequently accelerates the fatal 
event. 

There is a beautiful uniformity between the 
laws which govern the animate and inanimate 
worlds ; the power which commanded order to 
rise from chaos, light from darkness, the planets 
to revolve in regular succession around a common 
centre, the seasons to succeed each other in never- 
failing regularity, has decreed that relaxation shall 
follow contractility, that rest shall succeed to 
exercise, as surely as that an effect shall follow a 
cause. 

The necessity of obeying this law is absolute, 
to preserve the integrity of the muscular system. 
The mere extension of the arm is painful at a cer- 
tain limit ; beyond it the limb cannot be sustained 
in the extended position ; it falls inert in opposition 
to the most powerful volition. 

Muscular power is enfeebled, by undue tension, 
and annihilated if the latter be persisted in. 

The wild enthusiasts of Hindostan, in their 
blind idolatry and fervid spirit of self-sacrifice, 
furnish evidences of this physiological fact, re- 
volting to reason, shocking to humanity. 

In the spirit of penance for some real or im- 
aginary crime, the arm of the enthusiastic bigot 
is kept for years in a perpendicular, extended po- 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 67 

sition, until the muscular power of contractility 
is gone, and the permanently stiffened limb, the 
sacrifice of nature at the shrine of superstition, is 
presented to the weak disciples of a false but un- 
wavering creed, as a pious sign of the triumph of 
enduring faith over the agonizing pangs of mortal 
suffering. g 

But more familiar examples of the sacrifice of 
muscular power in obedience to customs " more 
honored in the breach than the observance," re- 
markable for nothing save the pertinacity with 
which they are defended by the blind adherents 
of conventional systems, which have no foundation 
in the physiological necessities of the human 
frame, are to be found in our public and private 
seminaries of learning. 

Humanity would indeed be benefited if our. 
teachers, public and private, and the committees 
to whom are intrusted the regulations of our 
public schools, would deign to step aside from the 
beaten track of 'a former age, and, with the new 
lights of science and philosophy, enter the temple 
of Nature and listen to her unerring precepts. She 
would tell them that exhaustion will as assuredly 
follow long-continued muscular contractility as an 
effect a cause. 

We are fully aware that, particularly in our 
ward schools, which are progressing in physical 
and mental improvement with the advancing 
spirit of the age, the physical part of education 
receives more attention than in former years, but 
much remains to be done. We are yet infants 



68 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

in the elementary knowledge of physical educa- 
tion* 

The following scale, graduating the height of seats 
and desks to the different ages of children, has 
been submitted to the inspection of Robert Paton, 
Esq., 24 Grove street. This gentleman has given 
much time and study to the manufacture of school 
furniture that may, at the same time, support the 
physical frame, add to the symmetry of the form, 
and impart ease and comfort to the pupil. 

Mr. Paton fully concurs in our views in refer- 
ence to the scale, which is adopted as a standard by 
many of our best teachers-, and which we now pre- 

* Anxious in the prosecution of this work to do full justice to 
any improvements in physical education, particularly in the 
Public and Ward schools, we visited several of the latter, among 
them that of the 16th Ward, situated in 24th street. We cannot 
but record the pleasure we experienced in witnessing the general 
regulations of this recently erected institution of learning, and 
particularly the attention paid to the physical education of the 
pupils. 

The attitudes of the children were frequently changed, by 
passing from one room to another to pursue their various studies, 
independently of the exercise allotted them in the commodious 
building and in the yard. 

The rooms are admirably ventilated, the seats are furnished 
with backs, and with the desks of the proper height correspond- 
ing to figure 5. 

Much credit is due to Mr. Thomas Foulke, the gentlemanly 
superintendent, for the good order and excellent regulation in 
his school ; and the ladylike Miss Sarah L. Miller, who has the 
f-upervision of the female department, deserves all praise for 
her own government and tbat of her assistants. She has our 
best thanks for her kind attention, while conducting us through 
the various female departments of the school. 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 



69 



sent to the public, in the hope that the trustees and 
teachers of our public schools, of all kinds, will 
bestow on it that attention which it merits as a 
powerful and necessary aid in developing the best 
system of physical education. 

Inches high. Inches high. 

Seat, 16 Desk, 2S£ 

15 " 27 

14 « 25£ 

13 " 24 

12 « 22i 

11 " 21 

10 " 19* 

The accompanying figure represents a pupil 13 
years of age, on a seat 15 inches high, at a small 
desk 27 inches high. The position is graceful, per- 
fectly easy to the pupil, and imparts the necessary 
support to the muscular system. 



Fig. 5 



Age. 


From 14 to 11, 


" 12 to 14, 


" 10 to 12, 


8 to 10, 


6 to 8, 


5 to 6, 


4 to 5, 




As a contrast to the above combination of grace 
and ease, we present on the opposite page an illus- 



70 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 



tration of position under the old system, which 
frequently has been attended with much inconve- 
nience to the pupil, and disease combined with visi- 
ble malformation to too many among the rising 
generation. We trust, under the influence of a 
well-directed physical education, based on a true 
philosophy and physiology, that the mechanical 
contrivances under the names of seats and desks, 
which have so long disfigured our institutions of 
learning, will ere long give place, under the new 
scientific system the elements of which we have 
endeavored to explain, to a more rational and 
healthful construction in these necessary appen- 
dages to the education of our youth. 




A fixed position of the muscles in children, for 
any considerable length of time, cannot fail to be 
injurious ; their bony structure and muscular de- 
velopments are alike imperfect, and are readily 
enfeebled and injured by external causes acting 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 71 

upon them mechanically or by the absence of ne- 
cessary external support. 

The system which compels the youth, in our 
public or private schools, to maintain even for a 
solitary hour a fixed attitude, acts in direct oppo- 
sition to the established laws of nature, and the 
advancement of physical and intellectual strength. 

Physical education must form the basis upon 
which to erect the superstructure of intellectual 
power; the "mens sana in corpore sano" should 
form the solid foundation of our national system 
of education. 

The greatest luminaries of intellectual strength, 
those who have shed a halo of true glory around 
their day and generation, both in other countries 
and our own, are men whose organic systems have 
formed a solid foundation on which to erect the 
temple of mental superiority. 

The restlessness evinced by children who have 
been long confined in one position, either sitting or 
standing, arises not only from a natural inability 
in the spinal muscles to support the spine and 
trunk of the body, but from absolute suffering aris- 
ing from the effort to force muscular power be- 
yond its limit, in obedience to the harsh dictates of 
established customs and a false philosophy. 

A similar effect, arising from a corresponding 
cause, may be observed in those among our female 
population, who for hours unceasingly ply the 
needle in a sitting posture: the muscles of the 
back and right arm become exhausted, and rest, 
or change of position, which calls into action an- 



72 HVGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

other sot uf muscles, can alone restore that mus- 
cular energy which has been sacrificed, too often, 
*o the necessities of poverty and its attendants. 

To the weakness of the muscles in youth, the 
j^ant of frequent ^relaxation and more especially cf 
proper support during' the hours of juvenile scho- 
lastic study, may be ascribed distortions in the 
spine, hip joints and chest, which, becoming per- 
manent, produce an incurable, lasting deformity, 
and an equally fatal constitutional derangement. 

The seats or benches in our schools are seldom 
adapted to the physical requirements of the system : 
in seats devoid of backs, as seen in figure 7 on the 
following page, where the feet cannot reach the floor, 
the muscles of the back, too feeble to support and 
maintain an independent erect spinal attitude, re- 
lax ; the anterior muscles of the chest contract ; 
the neck and upper portion of the spine bend for- 
ward in a half circular direction ; the proper cen- 
tre of gravity is removed ; the spine, posteriorly, 
is thrown behind it, and an injurious habit ac- 
quired which, if not corrected by the necessary 
mechanical relief, may ultimately produce a pur- 
manent spinal distortion. Nor is this the only evil 
attending the sitting position on a seat without a 
back where the feet cannot reach the floor ; the 
weight of the unsupported, dangling lower ex- 
tremities, flexes the thigh bone, a curve arises in 
it, and we have thus a deformed spine and a bent 
thigh, which a little care and attention to muscu- 
lar support might have prevented. Figure 7 pre- 
sents a contrast to figure 8. 



74 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

If a stooping attitude be maintained for any- 
great length of time, the spine will regain with dif- 
ficulty, if at all, its erect and proper position. The 
muscles placed immediately around each joint of 
this flexible bony column lose the power of con- 
tractility, especially on its posterior part ; their an- 
terior portions become rigid as the former relax, 
and a permanent spinal curvature is thus in- 
duced. 

By a similar attitude the seamstress, student and 
mechanic become round-shouldered, (as the curve 
in the shoulder portion of the spine is termed;) 
the head is bent forward to bring the book or 
work nearer to the eye. The erect attitude, either 
in -sitting or standing, is essential to beauty of 
form and strength of system. "Whether in draw- 
ing, painting, reading, or writing, the desk should 
be placed in front of the pupil, so adapted to his 
height as to enable the elbow to rest easily upon it, 
and consequently to maintain the spine in an erect 
posture, as shown in fig. 5. 

If the desk be too high for the pupil, the right 
arm, in order that the hand may be enabled to per- 
form its office, must be raised ; the elbow resting 
on the desk, will elevate the right shoulder above 
its fellow, the head and neck will be drawn on one 
side, and the spine will curve at the neck. It 
would be well if this single curvature would atone 
for the mechanical neglect — but the centre of spi- 
nal gravity must be maintained ; an outward curve 
takes place in the centre of the spine, and a third 
in an inward direction at its lower portion, that 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 75 

the centre of gravity may be preserved, as repre- 
sented in fig. 6. 

This treble curvature, producing a lasting de- 
formity beyond the reach of surgical art, is a mi- 
nor evil compared with the consequences of which 
it is the sure and fatal precursor : the bony por- 
tion of the chest becomes contracted by the en- 
croachment of its posterior column, the lungs are 
deprived of the necessary space for expansion, res- 
piration is impaired; the blood is deprived of a 
considerable portion of its arterial vitality, (a con- 
sequence of imperfect oxygenation in the contract- 
ed lungs,) the most deplorable affections of the 
heart and lungs ensue, and either a miserable ex- 
istence is the lot of this victim to imperfect physi- 
cal education, or a premature grave. 

The muscles of the chest, in every direction and 
on all occasions, must have free scope and play, to 
insure the health of the child. 



CHAPTER V. 
Muscles Conttmtcir— erfjetr 2£»gmie. 

Ribs united by Cartilages— Effects of Undue Pressure by Tight Lacing, &.c. 
Perverted Taste— All Organic Diseases accelerated by Pressure on the Cues! 
— A Wise Law of our Physical Condition — Muscularity essential to Ani- 
mated Nature— The Colt — Severe Labor should not be imposed on Youth— 
The Developcment of the Physical System — Skin heated by violent Muscu- 
lar Exertion — Sources of Diseased Spine — Boarding Schools — Healthy Blood 
— Excess of Carbonic Acid Gas— Carbon the Base of Charcoal— Plants at 
Night — Action of Impure Air on Muscular System — Tailors, Tailoresses, 
Milliners, and Dress Makers— Twenty-four per cent, of Deaths caused by 
Impure Air— Light of the Sun— Statistics from Russia— An Impure Atmos- 
phere when Heated — Humanity's Claims on our Public Municipal Authori- 
ties—Too much Attention cannot be paid to the Spine in Youth — Scholars, 
the Indolent and Weak — When the System is in a state of Exhaustion — 
The Muscles of the Spine under such a Condition — Strict Discipline Requi- 
site in Physics as in Morals— Exercise properly regulated essential to 
Healthy Muscular Action — Laws which govern Organic Life not known in 
our Colleges; if known, not practised — Theological Students— Causes of 
Bronchitis among our Clergy — The Sculptor. 

We have before stated in these pages, that the 
ribs are united, by means of yielding cartilages, to 
the sternum or breast bone. If undue pressure, 
either by tight lacing or in any other form, is ap- 
plied to them, they readily yield ; the cartilages, 
at times, overlap the breast bone, the cavity of 
the chest is contracted, the lungs become diseased 
from direct compression, the heart from the same 
cause sends forth its feeble column of venous blood 
to undergo a still more feeble process of aerial pu- 
rification in the lungs. 

How long will a perverted taste and blind ado- 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 77 

ration to a fashion founded on positive physical 
deformity, allure the daughters and mothers of 
America to follow their idol to the grave ! 

That tight lacing is a violation of the laws which 
regulate proportional beauty, needs no further 
proof than that produced by the contrast of fig. 
9 with fig. 10, below. In the latter we have the 
perfect form of the chest : in the former its ap- 
pearance under the compression and cod traction 
produced by tight lacing. It is indeed true that of 
late years the good sense of our ladies has par- 
tially banished the fashionable hydra ; but its dis- 
ciples are still too numerous ; youth and age yet 
continue to worship in the temple of their idol; 
health still finds her enemies, and disease and death 
their friends.* 

Fig. 9. Fig. 10. 





* Our pen was scarcely dry from awarding what we consid- 
ered an act of justice to advancing female intelligence, when we 



78 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

We know of no organic disease the progress of 
which may not be hastened by this unnatural com- 
pression of the chest : the liver, the lungs, the heart, 
are involved in its influences ; digestion, secretion, 
and absorption are indirectly placed within its 
power ; the nervous, the circulatory, the muscular 
and respiratory systems are under its immediate 
control. To what maladies then are they not ex- 
posed who persevere in this wanton infraction of 
the laws of nature ? 

By a wise law in our physical condition in rela- 
tion to cause and effect, the means most effectual 
in supporting muscular and consequently constitu- 
tional energy, are those which insure the most 
beneficial pecuniary results. The time expended 
in regaining exhausted muscular force, will enable 
the individual, in his renovated muscularity, to ac- 
complish a much greater amount of labor than had 
such repose not been granted to the wasted powers. 

Throughout the whole of animated nature, ma- 
turity is essential to the full development of mus- 
cular power. The colt, taken from the pasture 
and compelled to labor before his muscular and 

were informed, by a lady on whose information implicit reliance 
may be placed, that though corsets are abandoned, their effects 
are still retained in youth and age. 

To supply the place of these hunted-down appendages to the 
female form, whalebones are now introduced completely around 
and within the body of the dress, and the latter, when laced or 
hooked tight, as it usually is, is equally compressive as the cor- 
sets which public opinion has driven from the field. When will 
fashion succumb to the voice of reason, the dictates of nature, 
and the commands of God ! 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 79 

bony systems are strengthened by age, seldom, if 
ever, attains his proper degree of strength or ac- 
tivity. For a corresponding reason, severe labor 
should not be imposed on youth : the physiologi- 
cal principle which opposes the imposition, is the 
same in either case. 

The development of the physical system, the 
growth of the bones and the muscles, the processes 
of digestion, circulation and respiration, rapid and 
constant in the young, exhaust no inconsiderable 
portion of vital or nervous energy. 

The latter cannot, at the same time, serve two 
masters : if expended bountifully on the functions 
to which we have alluded, the necessary amount 
to excite vigorous or long-continued muscular ac- 
tivity is deficient : if the muscles be compelled to 
act under a feeble nervous excitement, they will 
become flaccid and weak, if not entirely inert. 

A like effect does not follow a similar cause in 
maturer life ; the expenditure of vital energy is 
not, in the latter case, required to support the 
growth of the system, and consequently can be 
applied with more impunity to the displays of 
muscular strength. 

The muscles should not be called into sudden 
and violent action from a state of rest. 

In complete repose, the amount of nervous fluid 
and arterial blood with which the muscles are sup- 
plied, is considerably diminished. As the neces- 
sary supply of each can only be increased gradu- 
ally, the muscular movements to which they give 
rise should obey a corresponding law. The move- 



80 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

ments of the limbs after a state of rest should con- 
sequently be gradually increased. 

When the skin has been heated by violent mus- 
cular exertion, and perspiration stands in drops 
on its surface, a current of cool air should be care- 
fully avoided : in this case the capillaries or hair-like 
vessels, directly under the skin, are loaded with 
blood; the sudden application of cool air drives 
the blood away from the surface to the internal 
organs, producing congestion or even inflamma- 
tion of important viscera. In this way pleurisy, 
inflammation of the lungs, rheumatism and neu- 
ralgia or tic doloreux are often produced. 

An abundant supply of pure air and pure blood, 
the latter being chiefly dependent on the former, 
is essential to sustain the health and energy of the 
muscular system. 

The sources of diseased spine may perhaps as 
frequently be found in a vitiated atmosphere as in 
the want of exercise or mechanical support. 

The above remark applies especially to our 
boarding schools, and all places where a number 
of human beings, crowded together, quickly ex- 
haust the oxygen necessary to arterialize the blood : 
the nutrient fluid, loaded with carbonic acid, is car- 
ried to every part of the body, in a state unfit for 
the nourishment and development of the tissues, 
and the muscles, in common with other organs, 
become weak and flaccid ; the fleshy wall which 
supports the back, powerful as it is, at length suc- 
cumbs ; and the spine, without the means to pre- 
serve the erect posture, yields to the physical 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 81 

necessity, curves, and becomes a lifelong deform- 
ity. 

Nature has decreed that healthy blood can alone 
furnish the proper stimulus to every muscle and 
fibre in the animal system ; and as it cannot be pro- 
duced except by contact with a specific quantity of 
oxygen in the atmosphere, through the air cells of 
the lungs, defect of nutrition and derangement of 
function must ensue where this does not exist. 

We may here not inaptly allude to the deleteri- 
ous consequences, the loss of muscular and vital 
power, produced by an excess of carbonic acid gas 
in inspired air. It is well known that the fumes 
of charcoal, if confined and breathed, will in a short 
time produce suffocation and death. Carbon, one 
of the most impure elements in the atmosphere, 
forms the basis of charcoal. 

It is a combination of carbonic acid gas with 
hydrogen that forms the air-damp so fatal to those 
who descend wells that have been long closed up. 

The gas arising from our coal fires, particularly 
that arising from anthracite coal, consisting princi- 
pally of sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen, 
is nearly as inimical to health and muscularity as 
that arising from charcoal ; nor can those who sleep 
in rooms heated by this coal, more especially if it 
be confined within a stove, ever expect to possess 
that buoyant muscularity which is one of the chief 
elements of healthful action in the system. The 
same observations apply to sleeping in a room in 
which a number of greenhouse plants are placed. 
Plants at night inhale oxygen, and give out car- 
4* 



82 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

bonic acid ; no one therefore, who values health as 
one of the greatest earthly blessings, will sleep in 
a room in which plants are deposited. 

The action of impure air on the muscular sys- 
tem and general health, may perhaps be less rapid 
than that of some other external agents, but it is 
not the less sure ; insidious in its approach and 
progress, it passes by, too often, unheeded and un- 
observed, until the recuperative powers of nature 
are destroyed, and the pallid cheek alternated by 
the hectic flush, the hollow and sepulchral cough, 
the midnight perspiration, the rapidly attenuating 
frame, the fallacious but constant hope of recov- 
ery, on the verge of existence, give evidence that 
the constant breathing of an impure atmosphere 
has laid the basis of a consumption which is fast 
hastening its unsuspecting victim to an early 
grave.* 

Tailors, milliners and dressmakers suffer pecu- 

* During a residence of some years among the mountainous 
regions of the Blue Ridge, in the counties of Rappahannock, Cul- 
pepper, Madison, and Page, Virginia, we were fully impressed 
with the importance of pure air united to vigorous exercise on 
the nervous and muscular systems. 

The inhabitants of those sections of our country can scarcely 
form an idea of nervous affections. No diseases dependent on 
specific affections of the nervous system are known among 
them. Accustomed rapidly to ascend and descend their lofty 
mountains, their muscular systems are well developed. Nar- 
row, contracted chests cannot be seen among them ; the shoul- 
ders are wide apart from each other, and every motion of the 
system indicates pure blood, strong nerves and muscles, the 
result of an invigorating atmosphere, and constant muscular 
exertion. 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 83 

liarly from the effects of impure air ; their work 
rooms frequently densely crowded in summer, and 
in winter kept at a high temperature by means of 
stoves which rapidly exhaust the oxygen of the 
atmosphere, leaving it highly charged with car- 
bonic acid gas and animal effluvia, a condition 
totally unfit to support the function of respiration 
and to maintain the vital powers. 

Twenty-four per cent, of all the deaths in our 
large cities are produced by impure air. 

Among the agents for strengthening the muscu- 
lar powers, the light of the sun holds a special and 
important station. The plant in the shade looks 
pale and withered and sickly, and those compelled 
to labor in subterranean abodes, scarcely, if ever, 
warmed by the rays of the sun, resemble the plant 
in the shade : weak and pallid, their muscular sys- 
tems ill developed, have but little tenacity or power 
of contractility, and the whole form but too plainly 
evinces that nature has amply revenged herself for 
the neglect of her high behests. 

We have alluded to the bad effects produced on 
individuals and society, in relation to muscular 
development and health, by compelling the me- 
chanic or artisan, whether male or female, to work 
in subterranean abodes, where the light of the sun 
is scarcely ever permitted to enter, and where his 
beams are certainly never felt. "We would add 
to these remarks, that the sunny side of the street 
is not without its influence as an antidote to, and 
a corrective of, disease. 

In those public buildings into which the light 



84 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

and heat of the sun penetrate most freel j, the work- 
men will be decidedly the most healthy. 

By statistics obtained from Russia, it has been 
proved that in the wings of some of the barracks 
for the Autocrat's soldiers, into which the sun could 
not enter, there were three cases of sickness to one 
which happened on that side or wing where the 
rays of the sun freely entered, all other things, such 
as clothing, cleanliness, ventilation and diet, being 
equal. No other cause could in any case be found 
for the above disproportion, but the abstraction of 
the sun's rays. 

This fact is well understood and appreciated in 
the cities of Italy. Malaria seldom attacks the 
houses or apartments which are freely open to the 
sun, while those on the opposite side during sum- 
mer and autumn are not only unhealthy, but dan 
gerous. We would again warn the employer 
(either manufacturer or artisan) to beware how he 
trifles with the health and life of those whom ne- 
cessity compels to seek his employment, by com- 
pelling them to work in cellars, or indeed in any 
place where the beams of the sun can but partially 
enter to purify an atmosphere stagnant with ani- 
mal effluvia; and advise the employees not to sac- 
rifice their health and the future welfare of them- 
selves and children, by working for employers who 
pay no regard, in this particular, to the physical 
constitutions of those whom they employ. 

An impure atmosphere, particularly if heated 
and humid as in our inhabited cellars, the living 
sepulchres of poverty, frequently produces, either 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 85 

successively or simultaneously, not only functional 
but structural disease, in the liver, spleen and 
bowels, as well as fevers in which these organs are 
principally affected. 

Humanity, equally with national policy and in- 
dividual and collective happiness, calls aloud upon 
the municipal authorities of our cities to institute 
the most rigid scrutiny in reference to those sub- 
terranean dwellings in which poverty, in crowds, 
is too often compelled to seek a refuge — the forlorn 
hope of human suffering — disease hovering around 
its outposts, and death standing upon its walls. 
There is a physical wealth superior to that pro- 
duced in the mines of California, the proper heri- 
tage of nations ; pure air, industry and temperance 
are its handmaids, health and prosperity its off- 
spring; it stifles the voice of avarice, stays the 
uplifted rod of oppression, and estimates the phys- 
ical and moral strength of communities by that of 
their individual members.* 

In closing our remarks on the hygiene of the 
muscles, we would again draw the attention of our 
readers to the advantages arising from the erect 

* We are informed that a hatter in Broadway thus trifles 
with human life, by compelling the females employed in his 
department of hat trimming to work in an under cellar where 
they are crowded to excess, and where the atmosphere is liter- 
ally charged with the elements of death. 

Many of these unfortunate young females, after suffering 
materially in their health, are now leaving this inconsiderate, 
we might almost say inhuman employer; while others, it is 
stated, have perished from the damps and heats of his subterra- 
nean workshop. 



86 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

position. In this attitude the muscles of the back 
are those chiefly called into action ; the rest are 
comparatively free from contractility, consequently 
less power is exhausted than in any other, save a 
recumbent, position. JSTor is this the only advan- 
tage gained by the erect attitude : the head and 
trunk rest upon the spinal column, and are properly 
balanced ; the centre of gravity is neither before 
nor behind the bony pillar ; curvature cannot take 
place if this position is insisted upon, as shown in 
figure 11. 

Fig. 11. Fig. 12. 



How different would be the muscular and ner- 
vous exhaustion in the attitude described in fig. 12? 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 87 

Not only are the muscles of the back and lower 
extremities stretched beyond their usual tone to 
prevent the body from falling forward, but the 
head, face and neck portion of the spine are 
thrown forward of the centre of gravity; and to 
form a second central point, a double curvature of 
the spine takes place, above and below. 

Where the muscular action is limited to a single 
portion of the body, the expenditure of power be- 
ing confined to the centre of action, much less ex- 
haustion will ensue than when such power is dis- 
tributed to many portions of the system ; hence, 
declaiming, reading, singing or sewing may be 
maintained for a much longer period with the 
spine and head erect than in any other position. 

This fact may be easily proven by attempting to 
hold two weights in the hands in a stooping posi- 
tion ; the muscular exertion necessary to counter- 
balance the weights, and to prevent the body from 
falling directly forward, will quickly reduce the 
muscular power and cause much pain, if perse- 
vered in. 

If the same weights be placed in the hands in 
the erect position, the muscular exertion neces- 
sary to sustain them will scarcely be realized ; no 
exhaustion or pain will follow the muscular ten- 
sion within the limits of a period far exceeding 
that which compelled the experimenter, in the for- 
mer case, to relinquish his grasp in order to restore 
the exhausted muscular and nervous power. 

Too much attention cannot be paid to the spine 
while it is flexible, in youth. If the young are 



88 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

permitted to sit in a bent position, either from in- 
dolence, debility, or from the badly constructed arti- 
ficial supports to which we have alluded, as seats 
without backs, or with backs not sufficiently high, 
or placed too far from the floor to permit the feet 
to rest upon it, or any means by which the spinal 
column is inclined toward a bent position, round 
shoulders will be the certain result in after life, or 
some more appalling spinal deformity. 

Not only does the erect posture contribute to 
the healthy action of the muscular and other sys- 
tems of the body, but it equally conduces to the 
beauty and symmetry of the form. So well aware 
were the ancients of this physiological fact, that 
their Yenus de Medicis, the acknowledged model 
of beauty in all nations, and through every succes- 
sive age, is formed upon the principles we have 
endeavored to enforce. 

Not only in hours of study but in those of re- 
laxation, not only in the standing but in the sit- 
ting posture, should the erect attitude be enforced 
within certain limits. 

Scholars, particularly the indolent and weak, 
are more or less inclined to lean forward and place 
the elbow or elbows on a desk or table for sup- 
port. If the former require correction, the latter 
require kindness and attention. When sitting or 
standing, the erect attitude should, in them, be 
maintained ; but the recumbent position, on a hard 
hair mattress and an inclined plane, should, upon 
the least premonition of muscular exhaustion, be 
immediately assumed — we say a hard hair mat- 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 89 

tress, because no facilities should be afforded by 
the inequalities of a softer bed, to a pressure on 
any particular portions of a spine too naturally 
inclined to curve. 

Much as we have advanced as to the necessity 
of maintaining the erect attitude, we must repeat 
what has already been remarked, that change, fre- 
quent change of muscular position, is essential to 
the organic structure of youth. The same rule 
applies to mental or corporeal power. If the ener 
gies of the brain have become exhausted by in- 
tense mental application to one object, a change in 
the direction of such energies, that is, a diverting 
of the mind to some other object of a less excit- 
ing character, will gradually restore the nervous 
power, and destroy that feeling of complete men- 
tal prostration which is frequently the result of 
profound study and long-continued application. 

"Were it possible to maintain this fixed intellec- 
tual intensity, insanity or idiotcy would be the 
result. But nature has wisely fixed a limit to her 
physical and mental efforts, before which the puny 
resolves of man fall prostrate, in which human 
volition succumbs to a higher and better regulator 
of the functions over which it has but partial con- 
trol. 

When the system is in a state of exhaustion, 
either from severe muscular exertion or a continu- 
ous fixed position, the nervous power upon which 
the contractility of the muscles depends becomes 
expended, nor can the latter fulfil their functions 
without a fresh supply of the former. 



90 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

The muscles of the spine under such a condi- 
tion, numerous, diversified and powerful as they 
are, lose the power to maintain the head and neck in 
the erect attitude ; nor should a child who evinces 
signs of fatigue arising from one of the causes 
to which we have above alluded, be compelled to 
sit or stand in the position which has produced it : 
a slight change in attitude will call into operation 
another class of muscles, and the repose which na- 
ture demands will thus be awarded to those which 
have been exhausted. 

The relaxation of the spine produced by the 
elasticity of the intervening cartilages, which unite 
its various bones together into a pillar remarka- 
ble for its strength and flexibility, materially les- 
sens the injurious effects arising from falls, on the 
spinal marrow and brain. 

By means of these flexible hinges, shocks which 
in advanced life, when the cartilages have become 
rigid and the spine assumes the character of an in- 
flexible pillar, produce death, are diffused, and pro- 
duce but temporary inconvenience. The chances 
of escape from serious injury by falls from a high 
position, will be in proportion to the relaxed state 
of the muscles. 

In falling from any considerable elevation, the 
knees, ankle and hips should be slightly bent, the 
spine slightly curved, and the toes should be the 
first portion of the body to touch the ground. If 
these rules could be observed, many of the serious 
injuries arising from falls, where the muscles are 
rigid, would be avoided. 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 91 

The value of the above suggestions may be 
easily proved by jumping, on the ground, so as to 
allow the toes in the one instance first to touch 
the ground, and the heels in the second. In the 
latter case, the force of the concussion, produced 
by the heel forcibly striking the ground, will be 
felt along the spine and in the back part of the head : 
in the former, the force will be distributed among 
the various joints of the foot and instep, before it 
reaches the spine or brain. 

Strict discipline is equally requisite in physics as 
in morals ; nor will the muscles, without constant 
and proper training, fulfil their respective and im- 
portant offices. The vocal organs may be adduced 
as affording evidence to sustain the above position. 

In our seminaries and colleges we have repeat- 
edly known students, whose sedentary habits had 
almost deprived them of the power of speech, the 
sound of whose voices would scarcely extend over 
the limits of a small room, so strengthen their 
vocal organs by a daily, well-directed exercise of 
the vocal muscles, as to be heard at the distance of 
eight hundred yards in the open air; we have 
known two individuals, thus vocally disciplined, 
to hold a conversation across the Delaware, be- 
tween Bristol in Pennsylvania, and Burlington in 
.New-Jersey, without any apparent exhaustion. 

To the partial use of the vocal muscles is to be 
attributed much of the bronchitis and other throat 
affections with which our clergy, particularly those 
belonging to the Episcopal Church, are so fre- 
quently afflicted, and which compels them, too 



92 HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 

often ineffectually, to seek a renovation of health 
in the climes of Europe, or to forego their ministe- 
rial duties altogether. 

Exercise, properly regulated, is essential to 
healthy muscular action in any portion of the sys- 
tem. Among the Methodist clergymen diseases of 
the throat are of rare occurrence. The cause of 
such happy physical exemption is to be found in 
that constant action of the vocal muscles, which 
imparts to them vigor and strength. 

The laws which govern organic life are scarcely 
known in our colleges, or if partially understood, 
are set aside for that false notion of j)hysical ease 
in the acquisition of knowledge, which may make 
accomplished scholars, but will inevitably make 
enervated men. 

Totally unfitted, in their physical constitutions, 
for the arduous performance of those duties, for a 
perfect acquaintance with which they have con- 
sumed the midnight oil, our young divines leave 
the theological seminaries, to disseminate, through 
the wreck of a constitution which has been sacri- 
ficed to false notions of duty and philosophy, the 
precepts of that religion the injunctions of which 
they have, unwittingly, disobeyed, by the total 
neglect of those physical agencies necessary to the 
beginning, progress and end of their labors. 

The evil of which we have above spoken, viz., 
the absence of proper physical exercise in our 
theological seminaries, and study in rooms over- 
heated in winter by stoves filled with anthracite 
coal, and in summer by a burning sin, generally 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 93 

too small to admit the amount of air necessary to 
insure a vigorous and free respiration, the study 
of ethics in an easy chair, and the general disposi- 
tion to a sitting rather than a standing posture, 
with the bent position of the spine, will never be 
thoroughly remedied until the trustees of such in- 
stitutions, in their wisdom, think it necessary to 
enforce the laws which govern the conditions of 
organic life, through a regularly instituted Profes- 
sor of Physiology. 

Nature has taught us, in the feeble muscular 
efforts of the infant just attempting to walk, in its 
wavering step and tottering gait, that education 
and training are essential to the development of 
muscular power. The advantageous results of 
such education will be proportioned to its frequent 
repetition and its proper direction ; the latter con- 
stitute a sine qua non to perfection, particularly in 
the mechanic arts, as in penmanship and the agri- 
cultural processes of mowing and reaping. 

The figures (fig. 13 and 14) on the next page, 
displaying an imperfect and perfect position of the 
spine, arms, body and fingers, will illustrate our 
meaning. In figure 13 the arms and fingers are 
contracted, the spine and knees bent. Figure 14 
presents the best position : here the spine is com- 
paratively straight, the figure free and extended, 
the arm in an easy and graceful position ; the 
whole form displays grace and ease. 

There is a lateral muscular movement of the 
hand, indispensable to the finished penman. If 
the muscles of the arm are rigid and contracted, 



HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 95 

the lateral movement which depends on the flexi- 
bility of the fingers cannot be made ; their tendons 
contract, and cannot be separated until the con- 
striction is removed by a relaxation of the lower 
arm muscles. 

No greater muscular contraction is required in 
penmanship than will enable the pupil to grasp 
his pen and move the arm resting on the elbow 
joint in any lateral direction which may be re- 
quired. 

The intimate relationship which exists between 
the functions of the mind and those of the body, 
renders it apparent that the muscular exertion 
which the mind suggests and directs will be most 
pleasing and beneficial: the mental and physical 
powers should act in the relations of cause and ef- 
fect. Intellect guides the skilful hand of the arti- 
san when producing the tangible evidences of his 
ideal conceptions. 

The sculptor, in forming the statue of which 
Ideality has presented the elements of symmetrical 
proportion and beauty, forgets his labor as the 
rude marble block under his chisel gradually rises 
into form and beauty ; mental activity and muscu- 
lar exertion balance each other, and the bright 
anticipations of the future impart nerve and vigor 
to the present. 



CHAPTEK VI. 
©f tfft Xerbous Ssgstem 

A New and deeply-interesting Field of Inquiry— What the Nervous System 
embraces— Of what it consists— Its Constituent Portions— Composition of 
the Nervons Tissues— The Vesicular Nervous Substance— The Fibrous 
Nervous Substance— The Round White Cords— Of the Cranial Nerves— Of 
the Spinal Nerves— Each of these Nerves arises from the Spinal Marrow by 
Two Roots— The Anterior the Motor or Moving Root— The Posterior the 
Sensitive Root— Segments of the Brain — Three Coverings or Coats of the 
Brain— Two Hemispheres, Right and Left— Each Hemisphere divided into 
Three Lobes— The Anterior Part of the Brain— Situation of the Cerebellum 
and Medulla Oblongata— Anterior Part of the Brain may be sliced off with 
out Pain— Effects of the Removal of the Brain Proper. 

A NEW and deeply interesting field of inquiry 
presents itself in the following pages : the anato- 
my, physiology, and pathology of the nervons 
system. 

This system embraces the organs by which the 
sentient being directly holds communication with 
the external world, and by which the behests of 
the will are conveyed to the muscles, in order that 
they may perform the various voluntary move- 
ments. 

It consists of the brain and spinal cord, which 
are called the cerebro-spinal axis, and of numer- 
ous rounded and flattened white cords, the nerves, 
which are connected by one extremity with the 
cerebro-spinal axis, from which they proceed and 
are distributed to all the textures of the body. It 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 97 

also embraces the sympathetic system, consisting 
of ganglia and connecting fibres or cords, which 
extend like chains from the cranium to the pelvis, 
along each side of the vertebral column, and from 
which nerves with ganglia proceed to the lungs, 
heart, liver, stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, 
and several other internal organs. 

The nervous system therefore consists of two 
constituent portions : the cerebrospinal, which em- 
braces the brain and spinal cord with the nerves 
given off from them ; and the sympathetic or 
ganglionic, which consists of the chain of ganglia 
located on each side of the spine, together with 
the nerves proceeding from them. The brain and 
spinal marrow constitute the great nervous centre, 
while the sympathetic system embraces a series of 
nervous centres, wherein each separate ganglion 
seems to possess the power of generating nervous 
influence. The former has been called the ner- 
vous system of animal life, and the latter that of 
organic life. 

The nervous tissues are composed of essentially 
two kinds of structure, vesicular and fibrous, both 
of which appear essential to the construction of 
even the simplest nervous system. The vesicular 
nervous substance is composed of vesicles, or little 
globular cells, which vary in size from 1-1000 to 
1-5000 of an inch in diameter; they are of a 
reddish-gray color, and are composed of a moder- 
ately thick capsule, containing a soft granular 
pulp. The vesicular structure is generally col- 
lected in masses and united with the fibrous struc- 
5 



98 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

ture, as in the brain, spinal cord, and the several 
ganglia. These masses constitute the so-called 
nervous centres, that is, the organs in which nervous 
force is supposed to be generated. 

The fibrous nervous system consists, as the 
name implies, of minute fibres, which vary in size 
from 1-5000 to 1-14000 of an inch in diameter. 
These fibres not only constitute a considerable 
portion of the nervous centres, but the nerves are 
composed of them alone. They constitute the 
cords of communication between the different 
nervous centres, and are distributed to the various 
parts of the body, like telegraph wires, for the 
purpose of conveying nervous force to them, or 
of transmitting to the nervous centres the impres- 
sions made by stimuli. Their office is simply the 
conduction either of impressions made by external 
and internal objects, or of the nervous force. 

The round, white cords which we call nerves, 
consist exclusively of bundles of the minute fibres 
above described, held together by intervening 
fibro-cellular tissue. 

Another fact worthy of mention is, that the 
minute filaments which compose the nerves are 
little tubes filled with nervous matter. They are 
also continuous from the nervous centres to what- 
ever organ they may be distributed. Impressions 
are conveyed to the brain, strictly speaking, not 
by the nerves, but by these little filaments, which, 
when grouped together, constitute the nerves. 

The nerves which are given off from the brain, 
and which therefore issue from the skull, through 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 9C 

openings in the same, are termed cranial nerves. 
Those which take their origin in the spinal mar- 
row are termed spinal nerves. 

Of the cranial nerves there are nine pairs, 
Taken in their order from before, backwards, they 
are as follows, viz. : 

1. The Olfactory, or the nerves on -which the 
sense of smell depends. 

2. The Optic, or the nerves of sight. 

3. The Moiores Oculorum, or the nerves which 
produce motion in the eyeballs, for the most part. 

4. The Pathetici, or the nerves which cause the 
superior oblique muscle of the eyeball to con- 
tract. 

5. The Trifacial, or the great sensitive nerve of 
the head and face, and called trifacial because it 
divides into three great branches. 

6. The Abducentes, or the nerves which supply 
the external rectus muscle of the eyeball, and en- 
able it to be rolled outwards. 

7. This nerve consists of two parts: a, the^a 
rial, or the motor nerve of all the muscles of the 
face, and b, the auditory, or the nerve of hearing. 

8. This nerve consists of three portions : a, the 
glossopharyngeal, which supplies the mucous mem- 
brane of the pharynx, the arches of the palate, 
and the back part of the tongue ; b, the pneumo- 
gastric, vagus, or par vagum, which has of all 
the cranial nerves the most various distribution, 
for it supplies the muscles of the pharynx, the 
mucous membrane and muscular coa,t of the 
gullet, the larynx and windpipe, the lungs, the 



100 THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 

heart, and the stomach ; c, the spinal accessory, and 
nerve of respiration. 

9. The Hypo-glossal, or the nerve which supplies 
the muscles of the tongue, and endows that organ 
with motion. 

Again, anatomists and physiologists, in order to 
facilitate description, separate the cranial nerves 
into four groups, according to the office which 
they perform in the animal economy. The nerves 
belonging to these groups are as follows : 

1. Nerves of special sense, which are the olfac- 
tory, optic, auditory, part of the glossopharyn- 
geal, and the lingual branch of the trifacial. 

2. Nerves of common sensation, which are the 
greater part of the fifth (trifacial) and part of the 
glossopharyngeal. 

3. Nerves of motion, which are the third, (mo- 
tores oculorum,) fourth, (pathetici,) lesser division 
of the fifth, (trifacial,) sixth, (abducentes,) facial 
and hypo-glossal. 

4. Mixed nerves, which are the pneumogastric 
and spinal accessory. 

Of the spinal nerves there are thirty-one pairs, 
which are divided into four classes, as follows : 

1. The cervical, consisting of 8 pairs. 

2. The dorsal, " 12 " 

3. The lumbar, " 5 " 

4. The sacral, " 6 " 

Each of these nerves arises from the spinal mar- 
row by two distinct roots, an anterior or motor root, 
and a posterior or sensitive root. The anterior root 
of each spinal nerve consists, exclusively, of mo- 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 101 

tor fibres ; the posterior as exclusively of sensitive 
fibres. For the knowledge of this important fact> 
and much of the consequent progress in the know- 
ledge of the physiology of the nervous system, sci- 
ence is indebted to Sir Charles Bell. It is proved 
in various ways. Division of the anterior roots of 
one or more nerves is followed by complete loss 
of motion in the parts supplied by the fibres of 
such roots ; but the sensation of the same parts 
remains perfect. Division of the posterior roots 
destroys the sensibility of the parts supplied by 
their fibres, while the power of motion continues 
unimpaired. Moreover, irritation of the ends of 
the distal portions of the divided anterior roots of 
a spinal nerve excites muscular movements ; irri- 
tation of the ends of the proximal portions, which 
are still in connection with the spinal cord, are 
followed by no effect. Irritation of the distal por- 
tions of the divided posterior roots, on the other 
hand, produces no muscular movements and no 
manifestation of pain, for sensitive nerves convey 
impressions only towards the nervous centres ; but 
irritation of the proximal portions of these roots 
elicits signs of intense suffering. Occasionally, 
also, under this last irritation, muscular movements 
ensue ; but these are either voluntary, or the re- 
suit of the irritation being reflected from the sensi- 
tive to the motor fibres. 

It will thus be seen that two classes of nervous 
filaments are given off from the spinal cord, the 
one termed sensitive, whose office it is to convey 
impressions from their peripheral extremities to 



102 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

the nervous centres, and in that direction only, and 
the other termed motor, which convey the behests 
of the will, and also nervous force, to the muscles 
to which they .are distributed, for the purpose of 
producing motion. While perusing the following 
pages, it is important for the reader to bear in mind 
the distinction between sensitive and motor nerves 
here laid down. 

The brain inclosed within the skull is divided 
into three segments, united by means of fibres or 
nervous threads to each other, but performing dis- 
tinct functions. 

1. The brain proper, or cerebrum, situated in the 
upper part of the skull. 

2. The cerebellum, or little brain, in the pos- 
terior and lower part of the skull. 

3. The oblong marrow, or medulla oblongata, 
anterior to the cerebellum, but connected to it and 
the brain proper by numerous nervous cords or 
fibres. 

The care evinced by nature in the outward pro- 
tection of the brain evinces its importance in the 
animal economy. Externally, the hairy covering 
first meets the eye, soft and elastic, deadening the 
effect of blows upon the scalp, and by its non-con- 
ducting properties in relation to heat, united with 
its power of exhalation, contributing to maintain 
equality in the temperature of the brain under 
varying conditions of heat and cold. 

Below the hair is the scalp, thick and elastic ; 
and immediately beneath it, a broad muscle cover- 
ing the superior portion of the skull from its an- 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 103 

terior to its posterior part ; and directly below this 
muscle, the pericranium, or membrane covering the 
bony-arched dome which envelopes the brain. 

Upon removing the upper portion of the skull, 
three coverings are found between its internal sur- 
face and the brain, the dura mater, or hard mother, 
adhering to the skull and dividing, by extensions 
we shall subsequently notice, various segments or 
portions of the brain ; the arachnoid, or spider-web 
membrane, so called from its resemblance to the 
web of that insect ; the pia mater, or soft mother, 
directly covering the brain, and accompanying it 
through all its winding twists or convolutions. 

Beneath the last covering, the brain presents 
itself divided laterally, by an extended portion of 
the dura mater termed the falciform process, (from 
falx, a scythe, in consequence of its resemblance 
to that implement,) into two hemispheres, right 
and left. 

Each of these hemispheres is again divided, from 
the forehead backward, into three portions or 
lobes, called the anterior, middle, and posterior 
lobes. The cerebrum is separated from the cere- 
bellum, or little brain, by another process formed 
by the dura mater, called the tentorium, from its 
fancied resemblance to the covering of a tent. 

The divisions above named prevent lateral pres- 
sure between the two hemispheres of the brain 
proper, and horizontal pressure between the latter 
and the cerebellum or little brain. 

The anterior part of the brain proper rests on 
the upper and posterior part of the sockets which 



104 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

contain the eyes ; the middle lobe reposes in the 
base of the skull ; and the third is placed in the 
back and upper part of the skull, supported by the 
tentorium. 

Beneath the tentorium, or tent-like support of 
the brain proper, posteriorly, the cerebellum or 
little brain is situated, occupying the posterior and 
lower part of the skull, immediately behind and 
rather above the medulla oblongata. 

The medulla oblongata, or third division of the " 
brain, rests upon the upper part of the spine, within 
the skull, like the capital of a column, united to 
the brain proper and cerebellum by nervous fibres 
hereafter to be described. It is difficult, if not 
impossible, to define with precision the specific 
functions which belong to each of these divisions 
of the brain, or to determine with exactness the 
physical line which separates them from each 
other ; but dissection furnishes negative testimony 
amounting nearly to demonstrative evidence. 

The anterior part of the brain (brain proper) 
may be sliced off, yet no excitement or pain will be 
manifested by the animal ; but the moment the 
knife penetrates the nervous enlargements termed 
tubercles, situated at the base of the cerebrum, the 
animal is thrown into the most terrific convulsions, 
accompanied with audible expressions of intense 
agony. Every other part of the brain, save this, 
may be removed without any external sign of ani- 
mal suffering. 

The experiment of Dr. Dowling, of New- Orleans, 
to which we refer in a note below, performed on 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 105 

a young crocodile, fully sustains the hypothesis of 
M. Flourin, (see page 107,) that the cerebellum is 
that portion of the brain, the office of which is to 
control and regulate muscular motion : the imme- 
diate paralysis following the destruction of the 
spinal nerves at once establishes their direct con- 
nection with muscular motion."* 



* We are informed by a friend from New-Orleans, that Dr. 
Dowling, a celebrated physiologist and learned physician of that 
city, has recently performed some experiments on a young croco- 
dile, to elucidate the functions of the nervous system. In one case 
he removed the anterior part of the brain, but no sign of suffering 
was evinced ; the cerebellum was then taken away — the animal 
was unalSle to walk, but sensation remained perfect ; the medulla 
oblongata was cut into — it died instantly. In another case, with a 
view to ascertain the pathology of paralysis, Dr. Dowling com- 
menced at the lower part of the spine, gradually removing the 
spinal cord from below upward — paralysis followed each removal 
in those muscles deriving nerves from the removed portion of the 
spinal marrow ; the spine was then divided from the brain at its 
upper part, and universal paralysis followed, clearly showing 
that, while the spinal cord remains in connection with the brain, 
no paralysis will take place in any portion of the system above the 
injury, or which is not supplied with nerves from below the in- 
jured portion of the cord. 



CHAPTER 'Vn. 
tfetrbous Swstem Contfnuelr. 

Experiment of M. Richeraiul— The Medulla Oblongata the Link which binds 
us to Existence— Corpora Pyramidalia— Corpora Olivaria— Restiform Bodies 
— Description of the Nerves issuing from the Medulla Oblongata— Their 
Offices — The Facial the harder portion of the Auditory Nerve — Its Exten- 
sive Ramifications — Has been called the Lesser Sympathetic — Was Sup- 
posed to be the Seat of Tic Doloreux — Supposition erroneous — It may be 
Paralysis from various causes— Glosso-Pharyngeal a branch of the Eighth 
Pair — Pneumogastric a Second Branch — Spinal Accessory a Third Branch 
—Case of Paralysis in " King's College," London— Lower Division of the 
Laryngeal Nerve — Effects of the Division of this Nerve on the Voice — Ex- 
periment on a Rabbit to prove the Pneumogastric was endued with some 
Motor Power — Those affected with Distorted Spines, Scrofula, Club Feet, 
Gout, or Epilepsy, should not Marry — To abstain from it a solemn Duty to 
Posterity — Children most liable to these Diseases — The well-educated Phy- 
sician—Origin of the Spinal Accessory— Muscular Movements of the Pas- 
sions under its Control — Front View of the Medulla Oblongata — Neck Por- 
tion of the Spinal Cord— The Medulla Oblongata the Seat where the Func- 
tions of the Mind and Body meet— Other connecting Links in the Nervous 
System — Connection of Hysterics with the Pneumogastric Nerve — Dance of 
St. Vitus— Hydrophobia— Dr. Gall's Theory of the Nervous System— Flou- 
rin's System— Cerebellum not a Central Point for Sensation— The Brain 
taken as a whole within the Skull. 

"We are not unfrequently indebted to chance 
for the most profound discoveries in science, and 
the functions and sensibilities of the brain were 
thus displayed by a French surgeon and physiolo- 
gist, M. Eicherand, while attending to a fractured 
parietal bone in one of the hospitals of Paris. The 
results clearly domonstrated that in the removal of 
the brain proper, the external senses cease to 
manifest perception ; that memory, judgment, 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 107 

and intelligence were annihilated, while no phy- 
sical sensibility was experienced. " While dress- 
ing the head of a patient affected with a con- 
siderable caries of the superior and anterior por- 
tions of the parietal (or wall) bones of the head, 
the pledget of lint, by accident, pressed slightly 
on the convolutions of the brain beneath the open- 
ing ; — the patient, who had been previously talk- 
ing to me, instantly ceased his conversation. Upon 
removing the pledget of lint, I asked him if he re- 
collected what I had been saying to him? He 
replied, No. Seeing the experiment unattended 
with danger, I thrice repeated it, and thrice sus- 
pended sensation, volition, and perception." 

In the removal of the brain proper, physical sen- 
sation remains, but judgment and intelligence are 
destroyed: the animal becomes a mere living 
machine deprived of desires and apprehensions, so 
far as their manifestations are visible. 

If the little and lower brain, cerebellum, be taken 
from within the skull while the brain proper is un- 
disturbed, perception is retained, but the power of 
voluntary motion is gone : the animal reels and 
staggers as if drunk. M. Flourin, a French physi- 
ologist, says : " In depriving the animal of the brain 
proper, it was thrown into a state resembling 
sleep ; in taking away the cerebellum, into a con« 
dition like intoxication. Death did not in either 
case immediately follow ; but when I removed the 
medulla oblongata, the animal directly perished." 

The medulla oblongata has been not unaptly 
termed the " link which binds us to existence." It 



108 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

is here that the nervous fibres given off from the 
brain proper from the cerebellum, and those sent 
up from the spinal cord, cross each other, and are 
mingled together. It is here that the nervous force 
is generated which presides over the important 
vital process of respiration. 

This portion of the brain is divided into three 
sections, the corpora pyramidalia (pyramidal bodies) 
anteriorly ; the corpora olivaria, or olivary bodies, 
(so called from their resemblance to the olive fruit,) 
external to the corpora pyramidalia and the restiform 
(rope-like) bodies which form the posterior segment 
of the medulla. Immediately behind the olivary 
bodies is placed a narrow white band, (which is 
indeed a portion of the bodies,) from which pro- 
ceeds a distinct set of nerves, those of respiration 
or breathing nerves, both sensitive and motor fila- 
ments. 

While some portion of these nerves is confined 
to the sensations and motor movements of the 
muscles employed in respiration exclusively, there 
is another which is the connecting link between 
respiration and other functions of animal exist- 
ence, particularly that of digestion : the effect of 
this union is displayed in the symptoms of all dis- 
eases in the organs of respiration which are ac- 
companied by derangement in the stomach, from 
the sympathy existing between the different por- 
tions of the pneumogastric nerve, or vice versa. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



109 



The accompanying figure presents a vertical 
section of the three divisions of the brain to 
which we have above referred, with the nerves 
issuing from the medulla oblongata. 



Fig. 15. 




1. Brain proper, (cerebrum.) 

2. The inferior or little brain, {cerebellum,) cut 
down to show the beautiful nervous expansion 
termed arbor viics, or tree of life. 

3. The oblong brain at the base of the skull, 
(medulla oblongata.) 

4. Spinal cord. 

5. Corpus callosum (hard body) lies between and 
at the base of the dividing line of the two lateral 
hemispheres; its fibres, crossing each other, are 
collected into bundles and penetrate each hemis- 
phere; it connects the anterior, part of the poste- 
rior, and the middle lobes of the brain. 



110 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

6. The first pair of nerves, olfactory or smelling 
nerves, -which arise by three roots : one from the 
fore part of the posterior lobe of the brain ; a second 
from a gray substance embodied in the anterior 
lobe ; a third by a lengthened root which may be 
traced for its origin into the middle lobe of the 
brain : these roots, uniting, pass through a perfo- 
rated bone at the top of the nose, and spread upon 
the mucous membrane or internal lining of this 
organ ; branches from the olfactory also enter the 
nose through the perforated bone and nervous 
filaments from the anterior root of the fifth nerve. 
In ruminating animals which select their food by 
smell, this nerve is very large ; in the whale tribe 
it is entirely wanting, and is much larger in the 
pointer than in the greyhound — the former pursu- 
ing his game by scent, the latter by sight. (First 
nerve of special sense.) 

7. Optic nerves, or those of sight, arise by two 
roots from the upper part of the medulla oblongata, 
through the optic tracts, and after taking an in- 
ward curved course along the lower part of the 
brain, enter by a hole through the back part of 
the eye socket, crossing each other ; they expand 
upon the retina or third coat of the eyes. (Sec- 
ond nerves of special sense.) 

8. The eye. 

9. Third pair of nerves, (the moving nerves of 
the eyelids,) arise from the upper part of the 
medulla oblongata, enter the orbits or sockets, 
and dividing into a superior and inferior branch, 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Ill 

the one moves the upper, the other the lower 
eyelid. (A nerve of motion.) 

10. Fourth pair of nerves, or pathetic, (a nerve of 
respiration,) arises from below the arch of the cere- 
bellum, (olivary columns,) passes into the orbit, 
and is distributed on the superior oblique muscle 
of the eye, of which it is the moving nerve ; it 
joins the sympathetic. 

11. Fifth pair, (trifacial,) a nerve of the face, 
arises by two roots, one from the anterior portions 
of two nervous columns, situated on each side of 
the fissure which divides the medulla oblongata, 
(pyramidal bodies — see Kos. 10 and 11,) the other 
from the posterior portion of a still more external 
column of the medulla oblongata, termed the 
restiform bodies in figure above, and hence like 
the spinal nerves is a moving nerve in its anterior 
and a sensitive nerve in its posterior root. This 
pair of nerves is one of the most interesting and 
extensively connected in the human frame. At 
its posterior root, near the hard part of the temporal 
bone, is observed an enlargement which sends off 
three branches — one to the eye, a second to the 
upper and a third to the lower jaw : the branch 
sent to the eye subdivides into three portions — one 
supplying the muscle which moves the canal whence 
issue tears, a second to the muscles of the eye- 
lids, and a third to the muscles of the nose. 

The second division (to the upper jaw) branches 
out into five subdivisions : the first, to the mus- 
cles of the temple and cheek ; the second, to the 
muscles immediatelv above and anterior to the 



112 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

ear ; the third, to the posterior teeth ; the fourth, 
to the anterior teeth of the upper jaw ; the fifth, 
to the eyelids, lips and nose. 

The third division (to the under jaw) subdivides 
into seven branches : the first supplies the masseter 
or chewing muscle, the second the temporal 
muscle, the third the h uccina tor muscle (from buc- 
cina, a trumpet) of the upper jaw, and also the 
mucous membrane of the mouth ; the fourth, the 
muscles of the palate ; the fifth, the facial, or mus- 
cles of the face ; the sixth, the teeth and gums of 
the lower jaw, and by the mental, or posterior root, 
the under lip ; the seventh, the mucous membrane 
of the tongue. This branch is connected by ner- 
vous filaments with that from the lower jaw. It 
also joins with the ninth nerve. 

The branches to the eye and upper jaw are 
formed of fibres arising entirely from the posterior 
branch of this nerve : they are consequently nerves 
of sensation. 

The branches to the lower jaw are formed of 
fibres arising both from the anterior and posterior 
branches of the nerve, and are, necessarily, nerves 
of motion and sensation. 

The two former general divisions of this nerve, 
being sentient, are spread immediately under the 
surface of the skin, in the forehead, the eyelids, the 
eyeball, the white coat of the eye, the mucous 
membrane of the nose, the upper lip, the integu- 
ments of the ear, the temple, the whiskers, &c. 

The last general division of the fifth pair sup- 
plies the muscles of mastication with muscular 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 113 

power, and the lower lip, chin, beard, and mucous 
membrane of the mouth and tongue, with sensa- 
tion. 

A small branch of this nerve enters the skull, 
passes down the neck with the carotid artery, and 
joins the great sympathetic nerve. The fifth pair 
being extensively distributed on the integuments 
of the face, and thus freely exposed to vicissitudes 
of temperature, frequently gives rise to that painful 
affection of the face known by the terms neuralgia 
or tic doloreux: it unites in sympathy the senses of 
smell, sight, hearing, and, so far as the lips and 
tongue are concerned, touch. The mental pleasure 
of a kiss arises from the impression conveyed by 
the third branch of this nerve to the brain. The 
sensation termed setting the teeth on edge, pro- 
duced by filing a saw, is excited by the connection 
established between the ear and teeth, by the 
branches of this important nerve. 

When the curtains are suddenly drawn aside in 
the morning, sneezing frequently follows the effect 
of light upon the retina. The latter consequence, 
in connection with a sudden pain in the eyeball, 
arises from the branches of this nerve which are 
spread upon the eye and the nerves of respiration. 

If the branch of the above nerve proceeding 
either to the eye or upper jaw (arising from the 
posterior column of the medulla oblongata) is 
divided, loss of sensibility immediately ensues in 
those regions, but the muscular power is compar- 
atively unimpaired ; but if the branch proceeding 
to the lower jaw (arising both from the posterior 



114 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

and anterior columns of the medulla oblongata) 
is divided, sensibility and muscular power are 
both destroyed. When the original trunk of the 
nerve is divided, the forehead, eyeball and nose 
become insensible, and the muscles of mastication 
paralyzed. 

The fifth nerve is the motor or moving nerve in 
mastication, and the nerve of feeling both external 
and internal, which appertains to the face and fore 
part of the head. Its pathological conditions, as 
in neuralgia and tic doloreux, illustrate its phys- 
iology. In the teething of children, whether 
primary or secondary, this nerve is always affected 
in a greater or lesser degree: the irritation pro- 
duced in it by the pressure of the teeth, frequently 
causes convulsions from the sympathy between 
the brain and spinal cord, and the physician, too 
often, in endeavoring to lessen the effect by the 
administration of antispasmodics, opiates, the 
exhibition of the warm bath, mustard cataplasms, 
cold douche, &c, permits the cause to ravage the 
sentient system until the powers of the brain are 
prostrated, and death terminates the painful scene; 
when the gum lancet, by relieving the pressure on 
this nerve in the division of the gum, might 
probably have afforded instantaneous relief. 

12. Sixth pair (abducentes, from abducere, to lead 
away) arises from the anterior columns of the 
medulla oblongata, or oblong brain ; runs over the 
sharp ridge of the temporal bone, and is distrib- 
uted to the external straight muscle of the eye. 

13. Auditory or hearing nerve, (seventh pair.) 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 115 

This nerve forms the sensitive branch of the seventh 
pair, and is named the portio mollis, or soft portion ; 
the portio dura, or hard portion, forming the facial 
nerve. 

The auditory nerve arises from the posterior 
and upper part of the medulla oblongata by two 
roots : one penetrating its central portion ; the 
other winding round the outer nervous columns 
of this division of the brain until it reaches a 
more internal column, the olivary bodies, near 
the upper part of the medulla oblongata ; it then 
enters the internal channel of the ear, accompanied 
by the facial, (its twin brother, although perform- 
ing a different office ;) dividing into two branches, 
one goes to the vestibule or internal cavity of the 
ear, the other to the cochlea, a cavity of the ear 
so called from its resemblance to a snail's shell, or 
rather from the Greek words signifying to twist 
and to screw : these branches again subdivide and 
are spread over the whole internal ear. The 
second portion of the seventh nerve, (the facial or 
face nerve,) termed the portio dura, or hard portion, 
lies on the anterior part of the medulla oblongata, 
and, like its related branch, on the upper part 
immediately above the outer columns, in its middle 
or respiratory division. After passing through its 
canal or opening, it expands on the parotid gland, 
and is one of the principal sources which control 
this important gland, and consequently of the 
saliva. When rendered torpid from any cause, 
the flow of the latter is much obstructed. 



116 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



The following plate represents the distribution 
of the two branches of the seventh pair of nerves, 
the auditory branch, or portio mollis, and the 
facial, or portio dura. 

Fig. 16. 




1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, branches of the seventh pair. 

4, 6, 8, branches of the fifth pair, or trifacial. 

10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, branches from nerves 
from the upper part of the spinal cord. 

So extensive are the ramifications of this nerve, 
that it has been termed the lesser sympathetic. In 
its origin, and functions in the respiratory column 
of the medulla oblongata, it is a nerve of instinc- 
tive involuntary motion, calling into action by its 
aid the muscles of the chest : it is connected by 
nervous threads to a large nerve of respiration, 
which arises in the upper part of the medulla 
oblongata, and is spread upon the muscles at the 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 117 

side of the chest, and to the nerve of the diaphragm 
or midriff, which controls the motions of that 
powerful internal muscle. 

The facial nerve is chiefly spread upon those 
muscles upon which the form of the face is de- 
pendent; beauty of countenance, so far as it is 
connected with balance of features, depends on 
the proper action of this nerve on the muscles of 
the face : it closes the eyelid by its influence on 
the orbicularis oculi, and corrugates those of the eye- 
brow in frowning. It is very large in the monkey, 
giving great activity to the nerves of the counte- 
nance, and is the lever which raises and twists in 
every direction the trunk of the elephant. If 
this nerve is divided where it leaves the brain at 
a small hole behind the ear, termed the mastoid 
foramen, (from mastos, a breast, and eidos, form, the 
bone and hole resembling the breast with its 
nipple,) paralysis of the muscles of the face and 
eyelids immediately follows. 

It was formerly, from its extensive ramification 
on the face, supposed to be the seat of neuralgia 
or tic doloreux; but a division of the nerve as a 
means of cure was followed by a paralysis of the 
facial muscles on that side of the face where the 
nerve had been divided, with total loss of volun- 
tary power over the features ; the eyelids refused 
to perform their office, and the corrugating muscles 
to contract the eyebrow into a frown. 

It may be paralyzed from various causes, as 
from the influence of cold acting on its capillary 
fibres directly on the surface of the skin, from the 



118 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

compression of a tumor at the angle of the jaw, 
or from a decayed or decaying state of the tem- 
poral bone ; bnt whatever may be the cause, the 
effect will be invariable — the patient will neither 
be able to close the eyelids, nor even to approxi- 
mate them towards each other ; he can neither 
move either lip upward or downward, nor purse 
them up into the form necessary for whistling ; he 
may laugh, but only on the unaffected side. 

The superficial muscles of the face may be thus 
paralyzed, utterly deprived of the power of volun- 
tary motion, while those deep-seated, as the masseter 
or chewing muscles, and all those which supply 
the lower jaw, are unaffected, being supplied with 
motor nerves from the fifth pair or trifacial, al- 
ready described. That it is not entirely devoid of 
sensibility, arises from its direct and frequent com- 
munication with the posterior branches of the 
trifacial and other nerves of sensation. 

14. Eighth pair, comprising the glossopharyn- 
geal, or tongue and gullet nerve, the pneumogas- 
tric, or lung and stomach nerve, and the spinal 
accessory, arises from the respiratory column of 
the medulla oblongata at its upper part. Its vari- 
ous branches, as above named, pass together 
through a hole at the base of the skull termed 
the jugular foramen, or jugular hole, being that 
through which the jugular vein also passes at the 
base of the skull, not far removed from the large 
opening where the spine is attached to the skull. 

The glosso -pharyngeal, or first branch of the 
eighth nerves, after escaping through the jugular 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 119 

opening, passes to the gullet at its upper portion 
and to the tongue, on which organs its finer threads 
are spread. It unites with the pneumogastric, 
spinal accessory, and sympathetic, forms a strong 
plexus or web around the carotid artery in the 
throat, and with the facial (the harder portion of 
the seventh pair already described). Its principal 
branches are spread around the upper part of the 
gullet, and on the tongue, to each of which it is a 
nerve of sensation ; it will, however, be remem- 
bered that the latter organ is furnished with an- 
other sensitive nerve from the fifth or trifacial. In 
a case of paralysis of the fifth nerve, which is spread 
on the anterior portion of the tongue, the sense of 
taste was destroyed, while on its posterior portion, 
supplied by the glossopharyngeal, the sense re- 
mained unimpaired. A case of paralysis which 
had been mistaken for hysterics, in which the 
glosso-pharyngeal was involved, occurred at the 
King's College Hospital, London: the muscles of 
the eyeball were paralyzed, supplied by the third 
nerves ; those supplying the upper part of the 
gullet shared a similar fate, so that the power of 
swallowing was destroyed ; the power over the 
trapezius muscle (see muscles, fig. 4, ISTo. 7) was 
lost, with that over those on the back of the neck ; 
great feebleness of voice ensued, and the patient 
ultimately died as if under the influence of sus- 
pended respiration. A post mortem examination 
showed a thickening of the third pair, the fourth pair 
on the left side, but particularly of the . glosso- 
pharyngeal, the pneumogastric, about to be de- 



120 THE NEIiVOUS SYSTEM. 

scribed, and the spinal accessory. The immedi- 
ate cause of death doubtless was dependent on a 
paralysis of the branches of the pneumogastric, 
which supplies the muscles of the chest and the 
lungs. 

The pneumogastric, or lung and stomach nerve, 
the second division of the eighth pair, called also, 
from its diversified ramifications, the vagus or wan- 
derer, emerges from the medulla oblongata imme- 
diately below the glossopharyngeal, and slightly 
behind the edge of the olivary bodies, passes with 
it through the jugular opening in the base of the 
skull, descends the neck, and enters the chest, to 
act on its muscles immediately beneath the collar 
bone. After passing through the skull, it forms 
a plexus or web which sends off branches, one of 
which unites with the third branch of the eighth pair, 
spinal accessory, in its internal direction. It sends 
off two branches to the lower and upper part of 
the gullet, also the upper and recurrent pharyngeal 
to the upper part of the windpipe or larynx, (see 
fig. 17, 2, 3 ;) two to each side of the heart ; inferior 
branches to the chest and pericardium or covering 
of the heart ; pulmonary or lung branches, which 
pass in front of the lungs and penetrate their sub- 
stance ; to the oesophagus, or gullet, through its 
whole length ; to the trachea or windpipe, spread- 
ing over its mucous membrane and muscular fibres, 
and to the posterior part of the lungs. After giv- 
ing off the lung branches, the wandering nerve 
passes through the gullet opening of the diaphragm 
or midriff muscle, and distributes nervous fibres 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 121 

on the stomach, and inosculates freely with the 
great sympathetic, of which we shall hereaftear 
speak. 

By the different branches of this nerve, a bond 
not only of nervous but muscular union, is estab- 
lished between the brain, the heart, the lungs, 
the gullet, the chest, the stomach, immediately; 
and by its connection with the great sympathetic, 
with every part of the system, indirectly. Can 
we wonder, after the establishment of this anatomi- 
cal and physiological fact, that many portions of 
the system feel the effects of disease at the same 
moment ? The survey of this nerve, in its physi- 
ological and pathological relations, fills the mind 
with deep interest. It would seem in some in- 
stances to be a motor or moving nerve, yet it is 
doubtful whether this be the case: the motor 
power which it seems to exert upon the muscles 
probably arises from its exciting the spinal acces- 
sory, (a nerve of motion,) the third branch of the 
eighth pair, which it joins. Its origin from the 
posterior part of the olivary bodies stamps upon it 
the character of a sensitive nerve. 

The distribution of this nerve in the inferior 
animals is analogous to that of its ramifications in 
man. In some of them, as the dog and cat, it is 
more intimately connected with the sympathetic 
system, or the chain of ganglia, with connecting 
nervous cords lying on each side of the spine, and 
extending from the neck to the pelvis. In birds 
and reptiles, its course and general distribution do 
not differ from that in man. 
6 



122 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The lower division of the laryngeal nerve (the 
subdivision of a branch of the pneumogastric, of 
which the upper laryngeal forms the second por- 
tion) appears to be endowed with motor or mov- 
ing powers. 

If the mucous membrane of the glottis (the upper 
and minute entrance to the windpipe) be touched, 
an instantaneous and violent contraction will take 
place, provided that the upper laryngeal nerve is 
uninjured; but if that nerve be divided on each 
side of the glottis, the latter organ may be irritated 
with impunity — no contraction will take place; 
thus furnishing proof that the upper nerve of the 
larynx is the nerve of sensation to the opening of 
the windpipe, (glottis,) while the lower branch, 
which it stimulates into action, is the nerve of mus- 
cular motion. It is this nerve which is more immedi- 
ately involved in stammering, especially when this 
vocal defect is confined to the vowel sounds. The 
nerve highly excited produces a too frequent and 
rapid contraction of the glottis, in opposition to 
the volition of the speaker. 

Destruction or impairment of voice, proportion- 
ate to the injury sustained, follows a complete or 
partial division of this nerve. The cure of stam- 
mering, when on the vowel elements, depends on 
the direction of this nerve, so as to prevent the 
too frequent spasmodic action of the glottis — in 
other words, in keeping the glottis open. Singeis 
never stammer while in the prosecution of their 
art, however they may be afflicted with this ob- 
struction in speech : the cause may be ascribed 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, 123 

to the almost continual opening of the glottis in 
song. 

Division of the pneumogastric nerve in the 
neck produces paralysis of the gullet. The pharyn- 
geal muscles force the food into the gullet, but 
the latter canal, having no nervous muscular 
power, becomes filled with the food, and the ani- 
mal perishes from suffocation, when the pneumo- 
gastric nerve is divided as above. 

Dr. Eeid tried this experiment on a rabbit with 
the above result. 

It would seem from the result of this and other 
similar experiments, that the muscles of the larynx 
were involved in the paralysis to a partial extent, 
as the food, after overflowing the top of the gullet, 
found its way through the glottis into the wind- 
pipe, and even descended to the air cells of the 
lungs. 

The experiment clearly demonstrates that the 
act of swallowing depends on the impression pro- 
duced by the passing food first upon the nerves 
of sensation, and through them upon the motor or 
moving nerves, whereby the muscles of the throat 
and the muscular coat of the gullet are made to 
contract, and the food is pushed forward into the 
stomach. 

On the functions of the heart, the cardiac divi- 
sion of this nerve produces but little effect and but 
slight disturbance ; that organ being also supplied 
by the great sympathetic, which unites with the 
cardiac or carotid plexus or web, the latter being 
formed by two branches, which arise from the 



124 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

ascending branch of the cervical or neck ganglion, 
where it enters the carotid canal with the internal 
carotid artery. 

In order to prove that the pneumogastric nerve 
was in some degree endued with the motor or 
moving power, the nerve on one side of the king 
in a rabbit was dissevered, but no change of 
structure in the lung followed — no spasmodic or 
convulsive action ; when the nerve was divided 
above the pulmonary branch, or rather both of its 
branches, the animal breathed like an asthmatic, 
the lungs became congested — the animal died. 

This result explains the important influence 
which these branches exert m the process of respi- 
ration. 

The branches of the pneumogastric nerve which 
supply the stomach chiefly exert their influence 
on its muscular coat, but the mucous coat is also in 
some degree controlled by them ; these divisions 
occasion nausea and vomiting. 

The origin and numerous ramifications of this 
nerve will explain many of those pathological 
conditions of the system which might otherwise 
seem inexplicable : how often, nay, how generally, 
are diseases of the stomach the hidden cause of 
many anomalous symptoms. 

The following plate shows the origin of the 
fourth, (Pathetic,) second portion of the seventh, 
(Facial,) Glosso Pharyngeal and spinal accessory, 
(branches of eighth,) Phrenic, or midriff and ex- 
ternal respiratory, nerves of the medulla oblon- 
gata : 



Fio. 17. 




126 THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 

Fig. 17. The distribution of the respiratory 
nerves. 

a. Section of the brain and medulla oblongata. 

b. The lateral columns of the spinal cord. 

c. c. The respiratory tract of the spinal cord. 

d. The tongue. 

e. The larynx. 
/ The bronchia. 
g. The oesophagus. 
h. The stomach. 

i. The diaphragm. 

1. The pneumogastric nerve. 

2. The superior laryngeal nerve. 

8. The recurrent laryngeal nerve. (These two 
ramify on the larynx.) 

4. The pulmonary plexus of the tenth nerve. 

5. The cardiac plexus of the tenth nerve. 
These two plexuses supply the heart and lungs 
with nervous filaments. 

7. The origin of the fourth pair of nerves, 
that passes to the superior oblique muscle of the 
eye. 

8. The origin of the facial nerve, that is spread 
out on the side of the face and nose. 

9. The origin of the glossopharyngeal nerve, 
that passes to the tongue and pharynx. 

10. The origin of the spinal accessory nerve. 

11. This nerve penetrating the sterno-mastoi- 
deus muscle. 

12. The origin of the internal respiratory or 
phrenic nerve, that is seen to ramify on the dia- 
phragm. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 127 

13. The origin of the external respiratory nerve, 
that ramifies on the pectoral and sealeni muscles. 

The diseases of no other tissues of the body are 
so readily transmitted through successive genera- 
tions as those of the nervous system. Every body 
knows how strong the tendency is in children to 
inherit both the habits and diseases of their 
parents. 

The rickety or club-footed,* those laboring 

* The club-foot sometimes produced by weakness of the mus- 
cular power which supports the ankle joint, at others by a de- 
fect in nature at birth, exists under two forms. 

In the first, the child walks on the outer ankle, as represented 
in figure 18 below ; in the second, on the inner ankle, as repre- 
sented in figure 19. 

Fig. 19. 
Fig. 18. 





The first is most usually a natural deformity, but still within 
the reach of art. The second is produced by a bad habit of 
walking, increased by allowing the infant to walk too early ; 
the inner ankle in the latter case frequently touches the ground. 

Both forms most generally occur in children of delicate nerv- 
ous susceptibility and weak muscular development, probably of 
scrofulous habits. 

The constitutional derangement must be primarily attended 
to; it is an object of the first and most permanent importance, 
and will always arrest the immediate attention of the judicious 



128 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



under severe lung disease, or predisposed to in- 
sanity, scrofula, gout, or epilepsy, should consci- 
entiously abstain from entering into any matri- 
monial connections : it is a solemn duty they owe 
to posterity. If the former three painful maladies 
are not hereditary, it is well known, from wofnl 




practitioner ; after which we would recommend, in preference to 
any other, the apparatus and bandages invented and used by 
Benjamin C. Everett, at the Surgeons' Bandage Institute, 34 
South Sixth street, Philadelphia, the effects of which are shown 
Fia. 20. in figure 20, where the defor- 

mities represented by 18 and 
19 have both yielded to their 
application, and a perfect 
joint has been formed. Nor 
have their efforts been less 
successful in the cure of 
other distortions in the bony 
and muscular systems, as will 

be seen by the case and figure below, and on the opposite page. 

FlG,2L " Fig. 21 repre- 

sents a case of 
Knock-knee. The 
deformity is the 
consequence of 
general debility 
in most cases, but 
is produced by 
dancing when 
very young, or 
weak, or from 
jumping from a 
height, thus 
straining the liga- 
ments and fascia 
which sustain the arch of the foot, the yielding of which pro- 




THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



129 



experience through successive families, that the 
latter, more particularly connected with the ner- 
vous system, are; that hereditary insanity fills 
our lunatic asylums, and scrofula has deformed our 
ancestors through countless generations. 

It is among children descended from those in 
whom wealth and luxury have produced habitual 
indolence, or from those of the opposite extreme, 
to whom poverty has denied the necessaries of ani- 
mal existence, that we find the most feeble ner- 
vous systems ; the former in consequence of con- 
tinued nervous inaction ; the latter, the result of a 



daces flat foot, and a tendency of the knees inward. This is a 
curable derangement when in the incipient state. 

FlG ' Fig. 22 represents a case of 

Bow-leg, the consequence of 
an excessive contraction of 
one set of muscles. Children 
of a good constitution are 
frequently found thus de- 
formed, and it is not unfre- 
quently found to be heredi- 
tary in families. This defor- 
mity can also be remedied 
by properly constructed 
bandages applied when the 
individual is in infancy and 
just commencing to walk. 
Cases have been cured at ten years of age. 

It is unnecessary to add any thing to the numerous testimo- 
nials of success resulting from the application of the apparatus 
and bandages of Mr. Everett, in almost every case of osseous or 
muscular deformity, from the medical faculty and the sufferers 
themselves. They speak in a language more forcible than any 
which we can adopt. 
6* 




130 THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 

feeble nutrition incompatible with the required 
expenditure of nervous power. 

The well educated physician examines the con- 
dition of his patient's tongue, as an index to 
acquaint him with the physical condition of other 
organs. As an anatomist, he is perfectly conversant 
with the fact that the pneumogastric nerve, after 
leaving its origin, extends over every portion of 
the frame ; as a physiologist, he is fully aware that 
every organ over which its fibres are expanded, is 
connected sympathetically, either in sensation or 
action, perhaps both. He consequently decides on 
the state of the stomach, perhaps other organs, by 
the appearance of the mucous membrane of the 
tongue, supplied by nervous fibres from the pneu- 
mogastric. Titillation of the throat will produce 
vomiting, through the sympathy established be- 
tween that organ and the stomach by the influence 
of this nerve. 

The branches of the vagus, distributed to the 
upper part of the glottis, are moving nerves ; those 
sent to the upper part of the windpipe are sensitive ; 
those distributed on the inferior part of the larynx, 
or upper portion of the windpipe, are nerves of 
motion. 

The branches to the lungs are moving and sen- 
sitive; they cannot be destroyed without inter- 
fering with the process of respiration, obstructing 
the circulation through these organs, and, ulti- 
mately, causing congestion. 

The Spinal Accessory, or third portion of the 
eighth pair, arises from the middle or respiratory 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 131 

column of the medulla oblongata in its anterior 
part, and is consequently a nerve of muscular mo- 
tion ; by a second root it is attached to the spinal 
portion of the cord about midway in the neck 
portion of the spinal column ; hence its name of 
spinal accessory. Its principal fibres are distrib- 
uted over two large muscles, deeply connected with 
the muscular movements of the head and shoulders, 
termed the cleido-mastoideus and trapezius, (see 
muscles 6 and 7, fig. 4 ;) these fibres arise from the 
external branch. The office of its internal branch, 
arising principally very near the posterior part of 
the spinal cord, it is not so easy to determine ; 
some declaring it to be solely a nerve of muscu- 
lar motion, dependent for its power of calling the 
muscles into play upon the action of the vagus, 
with which it is closely connected. Dr. Robert 
Bentley Tod, a distinguished writer on Physiol- 
ogy, who is also one of the most correct pathol- 
ogists of the day, seems disposed to assign to the 
internal branch of this nerve the office of a 
nerve of sensation. 

The spinal accessory and pneumogastric conjoin- 
ed, resemble the double-rooted nerves of the spinal 
cord in origin and function. As a peculiar nerve 
of sensation, the branches arising from the pos- 
terior part of the spinal column, in its respiratory 
tract, transmit «io sensations save those connected 
with respiration. As a nerve of motion, it moves 
the tongue and gullet when necessary ; acting as a 
nerve of instinct. By the combined action of its 
three branches above described, (the three branches 



132 THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 

of the eighth pair,) the muscles used in either 
ordinary or laborious breathing are brought into 
action, combined and directed within the proper 
limitation of force, to perform the necessary func- 
tion. 

All the passions, so far as muscular action gives 
character to physical expression, are under the 
influence of these nerves of respiration.- In a 
paroxysm of anger the eyes protrude, the facial 
muscles are at times contracted, at others extended, 
the chest heaves like a volcano seeking to lift up 
the covering of the smothered crater. By what 
power are these diversified muscular actions called 
into existence at the same time ? By the intimate 
connection and consequent sympathy existing be- 
tween the above-described nerves and those of the 
facial and trifacial, already described. 

To illustrate more fully the influence of the 
three branches of the eighth pair in their various 
curious and sympathetic relations with the great 
facial and other nerves, over the expressions of the 
passions and emotions, we select the emotion of 
Terror. 

The form under its influence is fixed and erect, 
inclining backward ; the eye stares wildly on the 
object which has produced the emotion ; the eye- 
lids, by the sudden and powerful contraction of 
the various muscles which move them, are placed 
at their utmost limit of distance; if the victim 
has power to move, his limbs totter, almost refusing 
to perform their office, and his general aspect is 
bewildered. So far the mind is intensely occupied 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 133 

with the object of apprehension. While the nerves 
of sensation, directly or indirectly, are thus acting, 
the immediate nerves of muscular motion throw 
the muscles of the chest into convulsive action, 
the breathing is hurried from the forcible contrac- 
tion and expansion of the muscles of the chest, 
the throat swells with a sense of suffocation, the 
heart beats violently against the breast bone and 
ribs, while the pallid countenance evinces that the 
blood has forsaken the circumference for the centre. 
Such are the physical organic signs of terror, pro- 
duced by the immediate controlling influence of 
the anterior roots of the eighth pair, in their union 
with other organic nerves, excited by the roots of 
their posterior origin. They are the legitimate 
instruments of expression, from the smile which 
plays on the lips of infantile beauty, to the last 
throes of mortal agony. 

16. The Hypo-glossal, (ninth pair,) or muscle 
above the tongue, the proper moving muscle of 
the tongue, arises from the anterior portion of the 
medulla oblongata, passes through an opening at 
the base of the tongue, and is distributed freely 
to the muscles which move it. 

The above cranial nerves, or nerves of the brain, 
send descending filaments to the upper spinal 
nerves, and to the great sympathetic, and by these 
means are connected with the whole nervons 
system. 

Having enumerated the nerves of the cerebum 
or brain proper, the cerebellum or little brain, and 
the medulla oblongata or oblong marrow, neces- 



134 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



sary to our future inquiry into diseases of the 
nervous system, we shall, after presenting to the 
reader a front view of the medulla oblongata, 
notice more particularly the physiological and 
-pathological conditions of the three divisions of 
the brain, within the skull, which are here de- 
scribed. 

The following front view of the medulla oblon- 
gata is taken from " Tod's Physiological Anatomy," 
page 240. 

Fig. 23. 
17 




p, p. Pyramidal bodies. 

d, o, o. Olivary bodies which lie along the side of 
the former, and form the tract of nervous matter 
from which proceeds the nerve of respiration. 

a, a. Arciform fibres. 

r, r. Restiform bodies. 

v. Lower fibres of the pons Varolii, or bridge 
of Yarolius. The office of the nerves which arise 
from this section of the brain, enables us clearly 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 135 

to judge of its functions, and to assign to it the 
most important position in the nervous system. 

That it is the seat of the nervous power which 
presides over the function of respiration, is estab- 
lished by the physical phenomena which follow 
its destruction or division : if this portion of the 
brain is pierced in a quadruped or a bird, it falls 
senseless to the ground. 

Some animals, as reptiles, and also birds, have 
no diaphragm or midriff: if in these the spinal 
cord be removed to within a few lines of the me- 
dulla oblongata, loss of sensation and action takes 
place in the muscles beneath the divided section ; 
but the animal can still breathe and swallow, and 
the higher instinctive faculties remain unimpaired. 

In the paralysis which follows a fracture of the 
spine, below the point where the phrenic nerve 
passes out of the spine, respiration remains unob- 
structed : so long as the medulla oblongata is un- 
injured, the nerves of sensation and motion arising 
from its middle column maintain the sensation 
and action of the chest and lungs. 

If the neck portion of the spinal cord, below the 
origin of the phrenic nerve, sustains a serious in- 
jury, the whole of the trunk beneath loses all mus- 
cular power, and presents the appearance of a living 
head resting upon a dead trunk : the muscular 
power of the head, however, remains the same as 
before ; respiration is unimpaired ; the medulk 
oblongata has escaped injury ! 

If the olivary bodies of this section of the brain 
be irritated by external agency, the muscles sup- 



136 THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 

plied with nerves from this portion of the brain 
are thrown into convulsive action ; hurried breath- 
ing ensues ; if continued, the spinal nerves more 
directly connected with those proceeding from the 
medulla unite with them, sympathetically, and 
general convulsions in the trunk and limbs come 
on. 

If the disease affects one half of the medulla 
oblongata, or the nerves proceeding from the 
brain above the bridge of Yarolius, the muscles on 
the opposite side will be affected from the decus- 
sation, or crossing of the nerve-fibres in the me- 
dulla; consequently, external remedies, as elec- 
tricity, galvanism, &c, intended to act on the 
muscles of the left side of the neck, (and the 
remark applies to the nerves throughout the sys- 
tem,) will be most effectual if applied to the nerves 
of the opposing side. 

That the medulla oblongata is the centre where 
the functions of the mind and body meet, cannot 
be doubted. The origins of the nerves of volition, 
so far as anatomy has been able to trace them out, 
appear to arise from its upper part, in two balls, 
termed the ophthalmic, the supposed origin of 
the optic or eye nerve. The removal of the brain 
above this section destro} T s the manifestations of 
the will, but not involuntary muscular action. 

The medulla oblongata, the great forewarn- 
ing agent of sensitive impressions from the head, 
trunk and limbs, and the olivary bodies, the great 
assembling station of the nerves of pure sense, 
furnish us with more than negative evidence 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. lS'i 

that this part of the brain, the seat of the respira- 
tory nerves, is likewise the depository of those, 
central impressions which are the agents necessary 
to produce sensations. 

The posterior columns of the spinal cord fur 
nish nerves of sensation so far as external impres- 
sions are concerned, but such sensation is carried 
to the seat of intellect in consequence of the union 
which exists between them and the posterior col- 
umns of the medulla oblongata, which latter trans- 
mits to the hemispheres of the brain proper, with 
which it is in immediate and intimate connection, 
the sensations received from impressions without. 
That this segment sends out the nerves of respira- 
tion, anatomy has furnished the proof by tracing 
the origin of the fourth, seventh, eighth, midriff, 
external respiratory, (see fig. 17,) (all furnish- 
ing nerves to the muscles of respiration,) into the 
olivary bodies, the lateral division of the medulla 
oblongata. (See fig. 15.) Nor is the contracting 
influence of the medulla limited to the purposes 
of respiration ; the function of swallowing is de- 
pendent on some of the nervous branches it sends 
forth, as those of the pneumogastric and glosso- 
pharyngeal. (See fig. 13.) Animals deprived of 
the brain proper and little brain, will continue to 
swallow food received within the fauces so long 
as the above-named nerves direct the muscles oi 
the gullet ; in other words, so long as the integrity 
of the medulla oblongata is preserved. 

That there are other connecting links in the 
nervous system of respiration than those imrne- 



138 THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 

diately proceeding from the medulla, is proved by 
the fact that cold water suddenly dashed on the 
surface will produce spasmodic action in the mus- 
cles of respiration, as from the first impression of 
the water in bathing ; it is, however, by the con- 
nection established between the spinal nerves, the 
smaller branches of which on the skin are thus 
excited, and the nerves of respiration, that the 
spasmodic constriction is produced. It is not un- 
worthy the notice of the physiologist, the patholo- 
gist, the physician, and the reader of these pages, 
that in maladies arising from mental emotions, as 
insanity, and some others, many, if not all the 
symptoms, point to the medulla oblongata as the 
seat of the disease. 

In hysterics, the various branches of the pneu- 
mogastric nerve, with those of the glossopha- 
ryngeal, (see fig. 17,) throw the muscles of the 
chest, windpipe and gullet, into those violent spas- 
modic contractions so terrible to the beholder, 
while their connection with the trifacial (the prin- 
cipal nerve of the face) distorts the facial muscles 
to an almost inconceivable, though transient de- 
formity. 

In the disease termed the "Dance of St. Vitus," 
we are furnished with similar evidence of the in- 
fluence of the medulla oblongata, the third, fourth 
and sixth nerves, and portio dura of the seventh, 
being those principally affected in this truly ner- 
vous disease. 

In the hitherto opprobrium medicorum, Hydro- 
phobia, the nerves of the olivary bodies, as mani- 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 139 

fested by the horrible contractions of the muscles, 
are primarily and chiefly affected. 

There is no portion of the nervous system so 
intimate in its connections, so diversified in its 
functions, as this dome of the spinal cord : it is the 
centre of muscular action dependent on the emo- 
tions. 

By its upward fibres it is connected with the 
brain proper, posteriorily with the cerebellum, 
downward with every spinal nerve of sensation 
and motion. 

By its connection with the posterior bones of 
the former, it can excite through their gray mat- 
ter the sensitive nerves of the spinal cord, forcing 
them, in their turn, to impart greater vigor to the 
moving nerves, and, consequently, to add greatly 
to the force of muscular movement. 

We now take our leave of this great centre of 
union between the mental and corporeal functions, 
to consider those which belong to the 

CEREBELLUM, OR LITTLE BRAIN. 

Dr. Grail, in his theory of the nervous system, 
and after him Spurzheim and other phrenologists, 
have endeavored to prove that the cerebellum is 
the seat of the instinct of propagation, and that 
animal desire is proportioned to the development 
of the organ. Later anatomical research does not 
support this hypothesis. If it were correct, the 
development of this segment would of course be 
greatest where animal desires are most active: 
the reverse is the fact : in some of the mammalia, 



140 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

(the monkey tribe, for instance,) and among am- 
phibious animals, (as the frog,) the instinct is much 
stronger than in man, jet the cerebellum is pro- 
portionally smaller ; while in some animals which 
have been deprived of the generative organs, the 
cerebellum is larger, as in the gelding, compared 
with the entire horse. 

Flourin, a French physiologist, has assigned to 
this division of the brain the faculty of associating 
and regulating voluntary movements which origi- 
nate in other divisions of the brain, or in the spi- 
nal cord, and this theory is supported by anatomi- 
cal proofs, of which the following may be addu- 
ced : The cerebellum may be removed or injured, 
especially in birds, without producing injurious 
' effects on other parts of the brain or disturbing 
their functions : this, however, is only true in re- 
lation to its superficial or gray portions ; if its 
middle and more fibrous layers be sliced off, the 
association of voluntary motions is destroyed, the 
animal reels and staggers, but can still see and 
hear. When the deepest layers of the cerebellum 
were removed by M. Flourin, the bird, the sub- 
ject of the experiment, was unable, when lying on 
his back, or in any other position, to rise; he 
could see an instrument raised as if to strike him, 
endeavor to avoid it, but could not escape ; the 
will but not the power remained to do so ; the 
faculty of associating the necessary action to give 
force to instinctive volition, was annihilated. The 
situation of this organ in relation to the medulla 
oblongata, strengthens the above theory : its con- 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 141 

nection with the brain proper is slight, but with 
the medulla oblongata, extensive — being united to 
the latter by the fibres of the restiform bodies, as 
also with the spinal cord, and to the brain proper 
by the bridge of Yarolius. 

The cerebellum is evidently not a central point 
for sensation ; it is equally certain that it is not 
the organ of the mental nerves and functions, but 
the proofs are abundant that it is in some manner 
connected with the lower instincts, and with the 
associations and regulations of actions arising from 
sensations in other portions of the nervous system. - 

We have now, so far as is necessary to the de- 
sign of this work, described the anatomical struc- 
ture of the brain. We have shown it to be com- 
posed of two substances, differing from each other 
in their structure and objects ; the one the cineri- 
tious, or ash-colored portion, being the external 
part of the brain within the skull ; the other me 
dullary, or marrow-like, covered and seemingly 
protected by the first-named. 

The brain, taken as a whole within the skull, 
has been shown to be separated into two hemi- 
spheres, and three general centres, those of in- 
tellect, sensation, and action ; having their origin 
in the train proper, the medulla oblongata, and the 
cerebellum. The protecting coats, or coverings, of 
the brain have been described, and the processes, 
or separating divisions which they form within the 
skull, to prevent undue pressure from different 
portions of the medullary and vesicular matter 
in that important organ. 



142 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

In the next chapter we shall notice the progres- 
sive development of the brain in the ascending 
scale of animated nature, with further remarks 
on the pathology of disease as connected with 
derangements of its various coverings. Indepen- 
dently of the anatomical, physiological, and patho- 
logical views there laid open, the gradual develop- 
ment of intellectual power, as creation mounts 
from her most inferior animal productions to man 
in the plenitude of his mental powers, the master 
spirit of a material world, is a subject which must 
at all times engage the attention of the moralist, 
as he looks from the smallest atom scattered in his 
path to the boundless intelligence of a Great 
First Cause. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
$i)Mstolofl2 emir ^atfjologa? of tije ISram* 

Animal Existence from the Zoophyte to Man— Nerves scattered throughout 
the Body in the Former— The more Perfect Animals without a Spine- 
Animals furnished with a Spine — Spinal Marrow superadded — Reptiles, 
Birds, and Mammalia— Successive evolution in the Size of the Brain- 
Weight of the Human Brain compared with that of the Body — South 
American Apes same relative Proportions— Canary Bird— Goose— Weight 
and Size not measures of Intellectual Power— What determines the Intel- 
lectual Grade of the Animal— Reptiles and Fishes— Their Nervous System 
—Have no Sagacity— Their Tenacity of Life— Systems less intimately con- 
nected—Next descending Class— Divide a Zoophyte or a Worm— Ages have 
admitted the Cerebrum to be the Seat of Intellect — What Observation and 
Experiment have confirmed — Accumulations of Water in the Brain— The 
Outer Portions of the Convolutions— Perception, Memory, Power of Ab- 
straction, employ the Convolutions — They stand as intervening Messengers 
—The Cortical Substance of the Brain— Dissection of the Brains of Luna- 
tics—Precocity of Intellect and False Parental Pride. 

As we ascend in the scale of animal existence, 
from the zoophyte, chained to his rocky origin, 
scarcely to be distinguished from a vegetable, up 
to man in the maturity of his intellect, we trace the 
progressive steps in the constitution of the ner- 
vous system. In the former, the nerves are scattered 
throughout the entire body without any concen- 
tration, apparently merely to serve the purposes 
of muscular motion. In the more perfect ani- 
mals without a spine, the nervous system assumes 
a more distinct arrangement, forming knots, or 
ganglions, connected to each other by nervous 
threads. As we progress upward, even in the 



144 THE BRAEST. 

lowest class of animals furnished with a spine, as 
fish, we behold an addition to the knotty nervous 
matter in the superaddition of the spinal marrow, 
nerves of voluntary motion and sensation, of in- 
stinctive movement and of peculiar sense ; but the 
brain presents scarcely any thing but its rudi- 
ments. 

Proceeding through the other three classes of 
spinal existence, reptiles, birds, and mammalia, or 
animals with breasts, we find a successive evolution 
in the complexity and size of the brain and the 
nerves connected with it, and with each evolution, 
correspondingly higher grades of instinct and in- 
telligence ; until we reach Man, the most intelligent 
of all created beings, with a moral responsibility 
corresponding with the greatness of the intellectual 
boon with which he has been furnished. The 
weight of the human brain, compared with that of 
the body, varies from 1-22 to 1-35. In some of the 
South American apes it bears the same relative 
proportions. In the canary bird it is 1-14 ; in the 
goose, 1-300. Weight and size are not therefore 
measures of intellectual power. It is the size of 
the brain compared with that of the spinal marrow, 
and the texture or quality of the former, that de- 
termines the intellectual grade of the animal. 

In reptiles and fishes the brain, if such it can be 
called, is a mere appendage to the spine, an anterior 
termination. Their nervous systems are confined 
to the mere functions of animal existence. Sagacity 
they have none ; their instincts are limited ; their 
tenacity of life alone is controlled by the nervous 



THE BRAIN. 145 

_- — r ~*- 

system. Their systems of organs are less inti- 
mately connected, and more independent of each 
other in their nervous endurance. Frogs will jump 
about long after their hearts are extracted, and the 
heart of a shark will beat for hours after the fish 
has been destroyed. In the next class descending, 
(not furnished with spines,) the independence of 
the nervous system is more strikingly marked. 
They seem to have distinct nervous bundles or 
ganglions in almost every part of the body, which, 
if not destroyed, although the animal may be cut 
into pieces, furnish it with a power of reproduction 
altogether marvellous. Divide a zoophyte or worm, 
and each piece will become perfect as the parent 
in its animal organization. 

Ages have indirectly admitted the cerebrum to 
be the seat of intellect ; a high and arched fore- 
head has been one of the physical signs by which 
mankind, in the past and present, have recognized 
intellectual power. Observation and experiment 
have confirmed the belief that the brain is the 
appointed organ which displays the passions, the 
emotions, the moral affections ; that it is the ma- 
terial temple from which the will issues its behests 
to the various divisions of organic life under its 
control, and to which the ever-changing impres- 
sions received by the five organs of sense are 
finally communicated. 

The number of convolutions on the surface of 

the brain proper, which latter occupies the whole 

anterior, and a considerable part of the posterior 

chamber of the skull, is in the direct ratio of the 

7 



146 THE BRAIN. 

advancement of intellectual power. In infancy 
the convolutions are imperfectly developed, and 
the intellect consequently feeble. The manifesta- 
tions of intellect increase with age, as the convolu- 
tions increase in matter and size. If any accident 
arise by which the growth of the convolutions is 
destroyed, the mental powers remain stationary or 
degenerate into idiocy. 

It is to the means which the convolutions afford 
of compressing the most matter into the smallest 
compass, that we must refer their specific uses. 

In large accumulations of water in the brain, 
arising from the ventricles at its base, gradually 
distending and unfolding all the anterior and 
lateral convolutions, the intellect will remain com- 
paratively unimpaired, if the skull, at the same 
time, proportionally enlarges. The outer portions 
of the convolutions consist of the cortical or gray 
matter of the brain covered directly by the pia ma- 
ter, inclosing a more fibrous, marrow-like texture. 

In examining these convolutions, in the ascend- 
ing scale of intelligence from brute to man, we 
mark a progressive increase in their complications : 
while in animals of little intelligence, the convolu- 
tions scarcely rise above their base, they are deeper 
and more numerous in those endowed with greater 
intellectual power. This fact, taught by compara- 
tive anatomy, establishes another equally impor- 
tant — that mental power is proportioned to the 
size and complexity of the convolutions on the 
brain proper. 

That perception, memory, the power of abstrac- 



THE BRAIN. 147 

tion, and ideality, employ the convolutions as the 
instruments of corporeal action, that they are the 
seat of memory, the final resting-place of the sensa- 
tions, where they take a specific form, and leave 
enduring mental marks, if we may so speak, of 
their impressions, is placed beyond the cavils of 
skepticism, by the fact before adduced, that the 
loss of this part of the brain is attended with an 
obliteration of these mental functions. 

Injuries inflicted on the convolutions, even their 
removal, occasion not any pain. 

They stand like intervening mental messengers 
between portions of the system not under the im- 
mediate influence of ordinary physical agency, 
aloof from action and sensation, yet registering the 
results of both, collectively and individually. 

If, in cases of extreme cerebral irritation, the 
convolutions seem at times to be the source of 
pain or convulsions, the cause is rather to be 
ascribed to some morbid action in the white or 
fibrous portion of the brain, than in the gray matter 
which covers the surface of the convolutions. 

If the membranes of the brain, from any cause, 
are in a state of inflammation, the mind is invari- 
ably affected in a degree proportioned to the physi- 
cal derangement, more especially so if the last mem- 
brane, the pia mater, be the seat of the disease. 

The cortical or gray substance of the brain, lying 
directly beneath this last membrane, is freely sup- 
plied with blood-vessels derived from it;- the circu- 
lation of the one cannot consequently be affected 
without producing derangement in that of the other. 



148 THE BRAIN. 

In low forms of delirium, as in that arising from the 
action of alcohol on the system, termed delirium 
tremens, the gray matter of the convolutions is 
found, on dissection, bloodless, no marks of inflam- 
mation exist ; the same appearances are observed 
in the delirium of acute rheumatism and of gout. 

Dissections of the brains of lunatics show disease 
in the gray matter of the convolutions, with 
thickening of the membranes of the arachnoid and 
pia mater. 

Anatomical and physiological investigations 
have alike demonstrated the convolutions to be 
the centre of intellectual action ; and that from 
their immediate union with the upper part of the 
medulla oblongata, the centre of actions dependent 
on the emotions, they may excite or be excited by 
them. 

As changes in the intensity of light or sound 
may produce deranged sensations of sight or hear- 
ing, any change in the act of affording the neces- 
sary stimulus to the convolutions may give rise to 
that rapid development of ideas, which, being from 
under the control of the will, may assume the form 
of delirious raving. 

If the workings of the mind are independent of 
the body, its manifestations are not ; they are inex- 
plicably connected with nervous force : upon no 
other hypothesis can we account for the bodily 
exhaustion which continued vigorous intellectual 
labor produces. ,». 

The material temple of intellect frequently falls 
prostrate before the workings of the immaterial 



THE BRAIN. 149 

presence which inhabits it, unable to bear the con- 
stant inroads made upon its walls. 

How often is the lunatic asylum the last resor 1 
of those intellectual master-spirits, whose mental 
energies destroy the engine through which they 
act. The finely- wrought mechanism of the brain 
cannot withstand those powerful encroachments at 
times made upon it by high intellectual powers, 
united with unsated ambition : it requires and 
must have repose, or its functions become per- 
verted, as in insanity, or perish, as in idiocy. 

That precocity of intellect in childhood, so often 
cherished and indulged by false parental pride, 
is frequently fatal to intellectual vigor in maturer 
years. The too early employment of the brain 
impairs its organization ; in some cases is produc- 
tive of hydrocephalus, or water in the head, and 
other diseases dependent on the torpor arising from 
excessive action. 

We would seriously admonish the friends and 
parents of youth never to sacrifice their early 
physical education (the proper development of the 
bones and muscles) to a false estimate of the value 
of that precocity to which the term "smartness" is 
in our country applied. 

Excitement produced by intense emotion at the 
loss of a valued relative or friend, the sudden wreck 
of worldly fortune, exert the most injurious effects 
on the organic structure of the convolutions, and 
on the operations of mind as a necessary conse- 
quence. The lunatic asylums of our country are 
replete with examples of this kind. 



CHAPTER IX. 
Werbous ffovn anir 2Electtictt2. 

What is this Nervous Force or Power?— The Nerves are not Passive Agents 
—The application of a Poisonous Substance to a Nerve— Contact of a Solid 
Body — A Wound in the Sole of the Foot — Appalling Convulsions of Epi- 
lepsy — Strychnine : its effect on the Spinal Cord — Effects of Opium — Should 
be very cautiously used in Locked-Jaw— Nervous Polarity and the Cold 
Douche -Hydrocianic Acid — Comparison between the Nervous and Gal- 
vanic Fluid — The equalizing of the Electric Union — Absolute Contact be- 
tween the Metals not essential — Nervous Action from a Centre — Matteucci, 
a Physiologist of Pisa — Galvani Nobile— Matteucci' s Experiment on a 
Rabbit— The Electric Apparatus supplied by Nature. 

What is this nervous force or power, or what- 
ever other name we may assign to it, which can 
exert the most destructive influence on the organ 
of its manifestations, and be itself injured by the 
effects which it has thus produced, which is so inti- 
mately connected with the corporeal functions and 
the workings of intellect ? What, if any, are the 
points of resemblance between the electric fluid, 
its origin and effects, and this nervous force which 
holds in vassalage the mind and body? In the 
formation of its laws and the operation of its forces, 
there are many points of resemblance to the elec- 
tric fluid, whatever reasons may be adduced for 
disputing the identity between the former and the 
latter. 

That the nerves are not passive agents we know 
by the propagation of stimulus from their origin to 
their termination, in simply irritating either the 



NERVOUS FORCE AND ELECTRICITY. 151 

one or the other. The application of certain poi- 
sonous substances to a nerve at any point, may 
destroy its inherent property, or produce a partial 
or total paralysis : vide the effects produced on the 
nervous system by opium, aconite, or belladonna. 
The contact of a solid body will frequently pro- 
duce great excitement. A spicula of bone from the 
alveolar process of the jaw, or even the stump of a 
molar tooth, by pressing on the maxillary nerves, 
(those of the jaws,) may produce the most excruci- 
ating forms of neuralgia ; the disease may attack 
the eye and ear at the same time, indeed all the 
muscles of the face, owing to the means of ner- 
vous communication established between its vari- 
ous organs by branches of the fifth or trifacial 
nerve. Thus may a little point of bone, or even a 
small fleshy tumor, perhaps unnoticed or un- 
heeded by the sufferer and his friends, pressing on 
one of the nerves of the jaws, or any other single 
nervous branch, throw the nerves by which it is 
surrounded and connected into a state of irritation, 
which will occasion the most acute suffering until 
the offending cause is removed. The most deplo- 
rable forms of paralysis may be thus occasioned. 
A wound in the sole of the foot or ball of the 
thumb, by means of nervous transmission to the 
spinal cord, and through it to the medulla oblon- 
gata, may involve a large number, if not all, of the 
motor or moving nerves, so as to induce contrac- 
tion in all the musclesrthey supply, producing that 
fearful malady, lock-jaw, and universal cramp in 
the system. 



152 NERVOUS FORCE AND ELECTRICITY. 

The appalling convulsions in epilepsy arise from 
irritation of the brain involving the nerves of the 
spinal cord. Sometimes the convulsions attack 
only one side ; in such cases the nerves of that 
side are affected, and the effect is produced on the 
opposite. 

Some substances, of which strychnine is the 
chief, exert a peculiar influence somewhat resem- 
bling electric polarity on the spinal cord, if applied 
to it. If this poisonous drug be taken into the 
stomach in any quantity above fractions of a grain, 
a general state of cramp will be induced, while sen- 
sation remains unimpaired. So excited is the ner- 
vous system under its influence, that the slightest 
touch on the surface of the skin, or even a breath 
of wind blown upon it, will excite the most horri 
ble convulsions ; the whole extent of the spinal 
marrow is thrown into a high condition of polarity, 
and the medulla oblongata becomes involved in it ; 
hence the closed or locked jaws, the dreadful spas 
modic action of the muscles of the face, the almost 
unconquerable difficulties of swallowing. Opium 
will produce a similar polarity of the spinal cord; 
hence this narcotic and anti-spasmodic should be 
very cautiously used in cases of locked-jaw, particu- 
larly in large doses. This polarity of the spinal 
cord exists at times unaided by the effects of chem 
ical stimulus ; the examples do not, however, 
come within the limited purposes of these pages. 

No application so effectually neutralizes this 
high state of nervous polarity in the diseases to 
which we have referred, as the application of cold, 



NEKVOUS FOKCE AND ELECTKICITY. 153 

either in the form of the " cold douche," (dashing 
cold water over the frame,) or of ice along the 
spinal region and in that of the medulla oblongata. 
Hemlock and deadly night-shade judiciously ad- 
ministered, internally, will relieve it. Hydrocianic 
acid, though sometimes given, rarely produces any 
good effect : we might imagine this to be the case 
by observing the high polarity of the nervous sys- 
tem in animals or man poisoned by this subtle acid, 
who always die in a state of universal convulsions. 

To follow our comparison between the galvanic 
and the nervous fluid, we state that to produce the 
force of voltaic electricity in the galvanic battery, 
it is essential that there be two distinct metals and 
an intervening compound liquid. When this 
latter interposing agent or compound brings into 
contact the opposing metals, a chemical action is 
produced which gives rise to an electric current in 
a direction from the metal most nearly allied to 
one or more of the elements contained in the 
liquid by which they have been united in action. 

Thus, if sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) be placed, 
in a diluted state, between two plates, one of zinc, 
the other of platinum, its oxygen is attracted to 
the zinc, which, in its turn, undergoing oxida- 
tion, unites with the sulphuric acid, and sulphate 
of zinc (commonly called white vitriol) is formed, 
which is dissolved as rapidly as formed in the 
liquid ; its hydrogen is evolved at the plate of pla- 
tinum. During the continuance of this action a 
singular phenomenon takes place : each molecular 

particle of the zinc, which is immersed in the fluid, 
7* 



154 NERVOUS FORCE AND ELECTRICITY. 

and each particle of the fluid also, communicates 
specific force and quality to that which follows it, 
until the whole circuit from the zinc to the plati- 
num, and from the platinum to the zinc, is, through 
the agency of the interposed fluid, in a state of 
electric equilibrium or polarity. 

In the equalizing of this electric union, one 
metal may be supposed to be the origin or gener- 
ator of the electric force ; the other, its conductor 
or propeller. Absolute contact between the metals 
is not essential to the experiment ; any conductor, 
merely touching the edges of both, will produce 
the desired effect. As the generating metal (zinc) 
sends forth the galvanic current through the 
medium conductor between the two plates, the 
platinum or propeller is raised in its temperature 
to an equality with that of the zinc. 

That there are strong points of resemblance 
between the production and force of the galvanic 
current, and the corresponding elements of ner- 
vous force, must be admitted by all candid inquirers. 

The sudden development of nervous force, 
when a stimulus, either mental or physical, is ap- 
plied to a nerve, as in the sudden contraction of 
the glottis by stimulating the fibres of the glosso- 
pharyngeal nerves spread upon the fauces, resem- 
bles in a most remarkable degree the instantane- 
ous evolution of the galvanic current under the 
chemical conditions we have explained. Both 
cease with equal rapidity when the states for their 
production no longer exist. Nor does the anal- 
ogy rest here : there is an apparent if not a real 



NERVOUS FORCE AND ELECTRICITY. 155 

similarity between them, in the conditions neces- 
sary to the development of both forces. In the 
production of the galvanic force we have dissim- 
ilar metals and an intermediate conductor : in the 
production of nervous force, as analogous, two 
kinds of nervous matter, the cortical or gray mat- 
ter, the fibrous, and for an intervening conductor, 
the blood. 

Nervous action from a centre never takes place 
independently of the united action of these sep- 
arate kinds of nervous matter. 

The relation existing between the metals in 
the battery and that in the nervous gray and white 
matter of the nerves or brain, somewhat detracts 
from the analogy, but does not destroy it. It is 
sufficient for the development of the galvanic 
force, that a wire of any dimensions connect a few 
points of the separated metals. In the production 
of nervous force, the points of contact between 
the white fibrous and gray cortical matter are 
much more numerous, the vesicles of the latter 
being abundantly brought in contact with the 
tissue containing the nervous fibre. 

There is much in the connection between the 
gray and white matter of the convolutions to jus- 
tify the supposition that every separate nervous 
fibre is connected with a vesicle of the convolutions, 
and that each of the latter, having thread-like ap- 
pendages, may be regarded as a point of depart- 
ure for one or more nervous fibres. If such an 
arrangement exists, we have still further analogy 
between the production of galvanic and nervous 



156 NERVOUS FORCE AND ELECTRICITY. 

force : the nerve vesicles with the fibrous threads 
issuing from them, and the arterial system encir- 
cling both, form as distinct an apparatus for ner- 
vous polarity as the galvanic battery, with its zinc, 
platinum and sulphuric acid, for the polarity of 
electricity. 

Matteucci, a celebrated physiologist of Pisa, in 
Italy, has clearly proved, by a set of minute and 
careful experiments, that an electric current is 
constantly taking place in the animal frame, more 
strongly marked in the muscles than in the nerves, 
and more powerful in the latter than in the brain ; 
that the electric fluid passes from the interior to 
the surface of the muscle : but in instituting fur- 
ther experiments to find from what portions of 
the system most electric fluid might be obtained, 
he found that a greater derived current was derived 
from the brain than the nerves, and from the latter 
than the muscles, but that the conducting power of 
the latter exceeded by four times that of the 
former. 

Galvani Nobile, another physiologist of Italy, 
has ascertained that in passing the galvanic cur- 
rent through the lumbar nerves of a frog, con- 
tractions occurred under different circumstances, 
according to the vitality in the nerves. He divides 
the vitality of the nerves into five periods: in 
the first, the direct current, or that directed from 
the hrain to the nerves, causes contractions in the 
muscles on closing the electric circuit ; the inverse 
current, or that from the nerves to the brain, pro- 
duces similar effects upon opening it. In the 



NERVOUS FORCE AND ELECTRICITY. 157 

second period, the direct current causes muscular 
contractions on closing the circuit, and slighter ones 
on opening it ; the inverse current causes contrac- 
tions only on opening it. In the third period, 
contractions occur only on closing the direct cir- 
cuit, and on opening the inverse. In the fourth, 
contractions occur only on closing the direct 
current ; and in the fifth, the nerve ceases to be 
influenced by the electrical stimulus. 

Matteucci, in support of these observations, 
divided the sciatic or loin nerve of a rabbit, devot- 
ing one nerve to the direct, the other to the in 
verse current. On closing the direct current, 
contractions were produced in the limbs and back, 
with marked signs of animal suffering ; the same 
phenomena resulted from closing the inverse cur- 
rent, and from opening both. After the nerve 
has been so exhausted as to produce but feeble 
contractions, it may be excited so as again to pro- 
duce actions powerful as at the first, by an increase 
of the electric current. 

If the phenomena above described do not prove 
an identity in the electric and nervous fluids, they 
show the nervous power as a polar force devel- 
oped by molecular changes in nerves excited by 
various stimuli, of which, next to the mental, that 
of electricity is the most powerful. 

The electric apparatus supplied by nature to 
some of the fish tribe, as the gymnotus electricus, 
torpedo, &c, furnish further evidence of the sim- 
ilarity between the nervous and electric fluids. 



CHAPTEK X. 
Spinal Xerbes. 

The Spinal Cord— Representation of the Medulla Oblongata— What will be 
seen by the Figure— Nerves at the Lower Joints of the Neck— The External 
Cutaneous Nerve— The Internal Cutaneous Nerve-^The Median Nerve— 
The Ulnar Nerve— The Auricularis Magnus, or Large Ear Nerve— Forma- 
tion of the descending Brauches of the Cervical Plexus — The Communicans 
Noni— The Phrenic, or Midriff Nerve— Formation of the Posterior Cervical 
Plexus— The Dorsal, or Back Nerves— The Branches between the False 
Ribs— Branches of the Intercostal — Cutaneous Branch of the Last Dorsal 
— A Section of the Brain and Spinal Column— The Anterior Branches of 
the Lumbar Nerves— The Posterior Branches— The Muscular Cutaneous— 
The External Cutaneous— The Genito-Crural— The Femoral, or Thigh Nerve 
—Sympathetic Nerve— Representation and Description of the Sympathetic 
—Power of Contractility in the Coats of the Blood-vessels no longer disputed. 

The spinal cord, the centre of the spinal nerves 
which are especially devoted to sensation and 
action in the involuntary muscles, extends from 
the large hole at the base of the skull, nearly to 
the extremity of the spinal column. 

Besides the strong band of muscles which sur- 
rounds, strengthens and protects it, it is still further 
preserved by three membranes, which, with the 
brain proper, the cerebellum and the medulla 
oblongata, are common to it, the dura mater, pia 
mater, and arachnoid membrane. 

From its second membrane, the arachnoid, it is ■ 
furnished with a serous moisture, and may thus 
be said to be suspended in a fluid medium, being 
immediately supported and maintained in its pro- 
per position by ties which stretch from the " dura" 



SPINAL NEKVES. 



159 



to the "pia mater," the first and last coverings. It 
is subdivided into three cords, corresponding with 
the anterior, middle or respiratory, and posterior 
columns of the medulla oblongata, as represented 
in the annexed figure. 



Fig. 24. 




F. S. Frontal Sinus. 

P. Y. Pons Varolii. 

M. 0. Medulla Oblongata. 

a. Anterior, * 

m. Middle, 

p. Posterior § 

S. C. Spinal Cord, on which its divisions are 
shaded to show the similarity of their arrangement 
with the columns of the medulla oblongata. The 
anterior column is that through which the brain 



columns of the 
medulla oblongata. 



160 SPINAL NERVES. 

acts on the nerves of muscular motion : the middle 
column, like that of the medulla oblongata, imparts 
sensation, if not motion also, to the muscles of 
respiration ; the posterior column gives origin to 
those nerves which convey sensations to the brain. 
Thirty-one pairs of nerves proceed from the an- 
terior and posterior divisions of the spinal cord, 
independently of those which arise from its cen- 
tral part, respiratory, to the various portions of 
the body to which they are destined. Among 
the spinal nerves the Great Ischiatic stands for- 
ward as the most prominent : it arises from the 
sacral plexus or web, and at its exit through the 
spine measures three quarters of an inch in breadth ; 
it passes down the posterior part of the thigh 
about two thirds, where it divides into two branch- 
es, one of which passes under the posterior por- 
tion of the knee joint, under the name of Popliteal, 
which latter, descending down the leg, assumes the 
name of tibial, from supplying nervous force to 
the muscles which move that bone of the leg, 
(the tibia.) Each of these nerves is furnished 
with two roots, one in the anterior, the other in 
the posterior part of the spinal cord, which, 
uniting, proceed on their journey to fulfil the dif- 
ferent functions with which they are charged : the 
former (anterior) giving effect to muscular motion ; 
the latter (posterior) fullfilling the purposes of sen- 
sation to the various muscles, tendons and liga- 
ments, upon which minute ramifications are spread 
after separating from its larger branches. 



SPINAL NERVES. 



161 



The following figure (from Tod, p. 205) will 
enable the reader to comprehend the construction 
of a spinal nerve. 



Fig. 25. 




c, c. 



The anterior fissure of the spinal cord. 



a. The anterior root of the nerve. 
p. The posterior root, with its ganglion or en- 
largement. 

a. The anterior branch of the nerve. 

p. The posterior branch. 

s. Sympathetic nerve. 

e. Its double junction with the anterior branch 



162 SPINAL NERVES. 

of the spinal nerve, by a white and gray filament, 
(a filament of action and sensation.) 

By the above figure it will be seen that soon 
after the posterior root of a spinal nerve leaves 
the spinal cord, it swells into a bulb or ganglion : 
it would seem that this enlargement of the gray 
or cortical-like matter at particular portions of 
of the nervous system, is for the purpose of sup- 
plying or exciting in the anterior nerves, an extra 
share of nervous power proportioned, to its waste 
in supplying extensive muscular development. 
The root of the anterior nerve (that which sup- 
plies power to muscular action) lies by the side 
of the ganglion, in the same sheath or covering, 
but without any direct union between their re- 
spective fibres. After leaving the ganglion, the 
two roots intermingle ; the result of the union is 
a compound nerve. The compound thus formed 
passes through the spinal canal, divided in its pos- 
terior and anterior branches, (see fig. 25, a,) the 
former being much the larger. The branches 
divide and subdivide, until they are lost in those 
final ramifications which defy the powers of un- 
aided sight, but whose existence is recognized by 
the aid of the microscope. 

At the lower joints of the neck, four of the 
nerves which supply its muscles, with an equal 
number of those emerging from the upper part of 
the spine, immediately below the neck, pass into 
each other, separate and reunite, forming what is 
termed the brachial or arm plexus or web. This 
web, spread over the posterior part of the neck, 



SPINAL NEEVES. 163 

and the upper part of the back, near the shoulder, 
passes to the axilla or arm-pit, and divides into 
six branches, which again subdivide into two 
groups, one supplying the internal and external 
muscles of the arm, the other those of the chest 
and shoulder-blade bone, above and below. 

The external cutaneous, or musculo-cutaneous 
nerve, after passing between the biceps muscle and 
brachialis anticus, proceeds to the outer part of the 
elbow bend r and finally reaches the hand. 

The internal cutaneous, after leaving the plexus, 
descends and pierces the muscles of the arm pits, 
runs down the inner side of the upper arm to the 
elbow bend, and to the inner part of the fore arm 
as far as the hand, where, by its branches, it com- 
municates with the external cutaneous. 

The median nerve of this plexus runs, as its 
name implies, down the middle of the arm to the 
palm of the hand, beneath the annular ligaments 
of the wrist joints. 

The humeral or arm branches, from this plexus, 
supply the muscles of the chest and shoulder blade. 

The ulnar, or fourth descending nerve, from this 
union, runs down the inner side of the arm, rest- 
ing for some distance on the head of the triceps 
muscle : at the elbow joint it lies, externally, near 
the ulnar bone, giving rise, when that bone is struck 
or compressed on the external part of the elbow, 
to the thrilling nervous sensation known by the 
term " striking the funny bone." 

Another plexus or web, termed the cervical or 
neck plexus, is formed of communicating loops 



164 SPINAL NEKVES. 

between the four upper nerves of the neck from 
their anterior part, while the posterior branches 
form the posterior cervical plexus. This web rests 
principally upon the muscle which lifts the angle 
of the blade bone, and it is covered in by the 
outer layer of the muscles of the neck : its 
branches are three, one ascending superficial, one 
descending superficial, and a third passing to the 
deep-seated muscles of the chest and neck. The 
first, ascending superficial, crosses the sterno cleido 
mastoideus muscle, (muscle of the breast bone, col- 
lar bone, and a process of the temporal bone behind 
the ear,) and subdivides into two branches, one of 
which is distributed on the side of the neck, while 
the other ascends to the lower jaw, forming a web 
with the cervical branches of the facial or face 
nerve. 

The second, auricularis magnus, or large ear 
nerve, communicates with the facial. It curves 
around the posterior border of the sterno cleido 
mastoideus muscle, ascends by the side of the jugu- 
lar vein to the parotid gland, (a large gland in front 
of and rather below the ear, which secretes saliva,) 
where it subdivides, one branch supplying the 
posterior, the other the anterior muscles of the ear 
and side of the face. The occipitalis minor, or small 
ascending nerve, passes from the plexus to the 
muscle which is inserted into the lower and back 
part of the head. It ascends from the web along 
the posterior border of the sterno cleido mastoi- 
deus muscle, and is distributed on the back part of 
the head. 



SPINAL NERVES. 165 

The descending branch of this plexus is formed 
of the acromiales, or nerves of the acromium, (the 
joint which unites the shoulder and blade bone,) 
and the claviculares, or nerves of the collar bone : 
its branches descend over the clavicle, and are dis- 
tributed to the integuments of the chest and shoiil- 
der. The muscular branches are spread upon the 
muscles of the neck. 

The deep-seated nerves of this plexus are formed 
of communicating filaments with the great sym- 
pathetic, the pneumogastric, and the nerves of the 
tongue. 

The communicans nom } or ninth communicator, 
is a long, slender nerve, formed b y filaments from 
the second and third nerves of the neck ; it de- 
scends and forms a loop over the sheath of the 
carotid vessels with the descendens noni. 

The phrenic, or midriff nerve, which belongs to 
this plexus, is formed by filaments from the third, 
fourth and fifth nerves of the neck ; it descends to 
its lower part, crosses the subclavian (under-collar 
bone) artery, and enters the chest between it and 
the subclavian vein; within the chest it passes 
between the pleura (the covering of the lungs) and 
the pericardium, (the covering of the heart,) to the 
diaphragm or midriff muscle, which separates the 
chest from the abdominal region, to which its 
fibres are freely distributed. 

The posterior cervical plexus is formed by branches 
from the first, second and third posterior nerves of 
the neck, forming loops of communication with 
each other beneath a large muscle, the complexus 



166 SPINAL NERVES. 

or complex, which forms no inconsiderable portion 
of the bulk at the back of the neck. All the 
nerves arising from the posterior cervical plexus, 
are distributed to the muscles on the back part of 
the neck, with the solitary exception of a large 
ascending branch of the second cervical, the great 
occipital: this nerve pierces the complexus, and 
ascends to the occipito frontinalis muscle, (or back 
and front muscle of the head,) on the posterior 
part of which its fibres are distributed. 

In tracing the nerves arising from the cervical 
plexus, we are struck with the bond of sympathy 
which they establish, in health and disease, be- 
tween different portions of the system. A division 
of the first branch, ascending, unites the neck 
nerves with those of the face ; the second, the 
muscles of the neck, face, and ear, while it also 
controls, in some degree, the flow of saliva, by 
stimulating the parotid gland ; the third, the mus- 
cles of the head with those of the neck, while the 
descending branches, with the phrenic or midriff 
nerve, hold an intimate relationship, for good or 
evil, with the chest, shoulder, neck, pleura, cover- 
ing of the heart, lungs and heart. 

The dorsal, or back nerves, are twelve in num- 
ber, on either side of the spinal column : the first 
arises from that part of the cord which lies in the 
spinal canal, between the eighth and ninth verte- 
brae, descending from the base of the skull, and 
the last, between the nineteenth and twentieth, 
connecting in the same direction. Each of these 
nerves, after leaving the spinal cord, divides into 



SPINAL NERVES. 167 

two branches, one of which supplies the intercos- 
tal muscles, or those between the ribs, (from inter, 
between, and costa, a rib ;) the other, the muscles 
of the back. The intercostal branches are asso- 
ciated by filaments with the great sympathetic. 
Where the true ribs terminate, they pierce the 
pectoral muscle, or muscle of the chest, the inter- 
costal muscles, and are distributed to the fascia 
forming the breast, and to the front of the chest. 

The branches between the false ribs pass behind 
their cartilages, and supply the rectus, or short 
muscle of the abdomen. The first and last back 
nerves are exceptions to the general distributions 
of these nerves : the anterior branch of the first 
divides into two branches — a smaller, which takes 
the course of the intercostals, and a larger, which 
crosses the first rib obliquely and joins the brachial 
web, or plexus. The last dorsal nerve sends off 
a communicating branch to the first lumbar nerve, 
to assist in forming the lumbar plexus. 

The branches of the intercostal are partly mus- 
cular and partly cutaneous ; the latter are nerves 
of sensation. 

The cutaneous branch of the last dorsal nerve 
crosses the ridge of the haunch bone, and is dis- 
tributed to the integument of the gluteal region, 
as far down as the trochanter major. 

That portion of the spinal column included be- 
tween the nineteenth and twenty -fourth vertebrae 
(inclusive) of the spinal column, has been termed 
lumbar, (from lumbus, a loin,) and the nerves issu- 



168 



SPINAL NERVES. 



ing from the spinal cord between those vertebras 
the lumbar nerves. 

The following figures represent a section of the 
brain and spinal column, and an anterior view of 
the brain and spinal cord. 



Fig. 26. 





1. The cerebrum, or brain proper. 

2. The cerebellum, or little brain. 

3. The medulla oblongata within the foramen 
magnum, or large hole of the skull. 



SPINAL NEltVES. 169 

The cervical, or neck vertebra?, 7 in pairs. 
The dorsal, or back vertebrae, 12 in pairs. 
The lumbar, or loin vertebrae, 5 in pairs. 
Sacral region, 5 in pairs. 
Coccyx, 4 in pairs. 

1—1. The two hemispheres of the brain proper. 
3 — 3. The cerebellum, or little brain. 

4. The olfactory nerve, (smelling.) 

5. Optic nerve. 

7. Third pair of nerves. 

8. The pons Yarolii. 

9. Fourth pair of nerves. 

10. The lower portion of the medulla oblongata. 
11 — 11. Spinal cord. 

12 — 12. Spinal nerves. 

13 — 13. Brachial plexus. 

14 — 14. Lumbar and sacral plexus. 

The anterior or motor branches of the lumbar 
nerves increase in size from above downward, and 
form the lumbar plexus, or web, (fig. 27, 14,) 
being a union of filaments between the last ante- 
rior dorsal and four upper anterior lumbar nerves. 

The posterior branches (sensitive) of the lum- 
bar nerves pass to the muscles of the back and 
loins. The lumbar plexus has five branches : the 
muscular cutaneous, the external cutaneous, the gen- 
ito-crural, or genital and leg, the crural or femoral, 
or leg and thigh, and the obturator. 

The muscular cutaneous branch is distributed 
over the muscles of the hip and buttock; the 
muscular branch, after passing along the ridge of 
8 



170 SPINAL NERVES. 

me haunch bone, is distributed on the abdominal 
muscles. 

The external cutaneous proceeds from the second 
lumbar nerve, pierces the posterior fibres of the 
jsoas muscle, (muscle of the loins,) crosses the two 
arteries in front of the flank, (iliac,) proceeds 
along the upper and outward spine of the haunch 
bone, and passing into the thigh among its ante- 
rior and posterior muscles, distributes its fibres to 
them. 

The genito-crural, or genital and leg nerve, arises 
from the second nerve of the loins, traverses the 
psoas muscle, where it divides into two branches, 
one of which passes through the abdominal ring ; 
the other crural, or leg branch, supplies nerves to 
the muscles on the internal part of the thigh. 

The femoral (thigh) nerve, the largest division 
of the lumbar plexus, is formed by a union of the 
second, third, and fourth lumbar nerves ; it passes 
under the psoas muscle between it and the flank 
muscles, supplying numerous nervous branches 
to both, and also fibres to the muscles of the thigh. 

The obturator is formed by the union of two 
nervous branches : one from the third, the other 
from the fourth lumbar nerve. This nerve passes 
along the inner border of the line of the pelvis, 
or basin, at the lower end of the spine, to a hole, 
where it passes out, (filling the latter up ; hence its 
name, from obturate, to fill up,) and joins the ob- 
turator artery. After escaping from the pelvis 
through the above foramen, it divides into an an- 
terior and posterior branch ; the anterior passing 



SPINAL NERVES. 17 

in front of the adductor hrevis and adductor longus 
muscles, (see muscles,) to both of which it gives ofi 
nervous branches ; the posterior (sensitive) branc; 
passes behind the adductor brevis, supplying it, as 
also the adductor longus, with nervous fibres. 

Sacral Nerves. — These nerves proceed from the 
spinal cord immediately below the last nerve of 
the lumbar region. Six pairs arise from this 
division of the spinal marrow, four of which,, 
the upper anterior, uniting with the last nerve of 
the loins, form the plexus, or web, attached to this 
division of the spinal cord. (Fig. 27, 14 — 14.) 
From the plexus thus formed, nervous branches 
are sent out, which, again subdividing, impart 
nervous power to the muscles of the haunches, 
thigh, leg and foot. 

Sympathetic Nerve. — The last to be mentioned, 
nevertheless one of the most important nerves in 
the whole body, is the sympathetic. The name 
assigned to this nerve explains its function: it 
sympathizes with every nerve in the system, either 
directly or indirectly. It extends along each side 
of the spine from the head to the lowest division 
of bones in that flexible pillar. 

In its downward progress, it forms between each 
vertebra, at the intervening cartilage, an enlarge- 
ment, or ganglion, excepting in the neck ; and 
hence it is sometimes called the ganglionic nerve. 

Pervading, as it does, a large part of the human 
economy, forming a central bond of union between 
the action of muscles most distant from each other, 
and sensations arising from external and internal 



172 SPINAL NERVES. 

impressions on every part of the frame, its anato- 
my has for many years engaged the attention of 
the best physiologists. 

The result of their labors has shown the sympa- 
thetic to be a compound nerve, formed of numer- 
ous tube-like fibres, issuing from the nerves of 
the spinal cord and from the vesicular matter of 
the ganglia. 

Originating from distinct sources, like the an- 
terior and posterior nerves of the spinal cord, 
these fibres, inclosed in the same sheath, travel 
on in company to their varied destinations. 

We give on the opposite page a representation 
of the sympathetic, its ganglia and connection 
with other nerves. 

A, A, A. Semilunar ganglion and solar plexus, 
situated below the midriff and behind the stomach, 
in the region of what is called the pit of the sto- 
mach : the sense of severe pain, and disposition to 
vomit, which succeeds to a violent blow on the 
stomach at its lower part, are produced by the de- 
rangement of this ganglion. 

The solar plexus, with most others in the abdo- 
men, is mainly derived from two large ganglia of 
the sympathetic, situated in front of the aorta, or 
large artery of the body. The term aorta is de- 
rived from avp, air, and tvpso, to keep — the ancients 
supposing, what was first disproved by the cele- 
brated Harvey, that the arteries were air-tubes, 
not blood-vessels. 

From the semilunar ganglion and solar plexus 
are formed various webs, or plexuses, which are 



174 SPINAL NERVES. 

distributed about the midriff artery, the upper ar- 
tery of the kidneys, to those of the liver, stomach 
and spleen, and also to the upper mesenteric, 
(from fisao^ the middle, and svtspov, the intestine; 
the mesentery being a tough membrane in the 
middle of the intestines by which they are held 
to the spine.) 

The superior mesenteric plexus, with other nerves 
proceeding from the portion of the sympathetic in 
the region of the loins, forms the inferior mesenteric 
plexus ; the former destined to give sensation and 
power to the muscles of the womb ; the latter to 
the generative organs in man. 

D, D, D. The thoracic, or chest ganglia, are twelve 
in number on each side ; they rest upon the ends 
of the ribs, and send out four branches — the su- 
perior, inferior, external, and internal : the supe- 
rior, as in all the sympathetic ganglia, are attached 
to the ganglia immediately above them ; the infe- 
rior, to those below ; the external branches, sev- 
eral in number, are connected with each of the 
spinal nerves. The internal branches of the five 
upper ganglia pass to the aorta; those of the 
lower ganglia unite in forming two large nerves, 
which descend in front of the spinal column, pierce 
the midriff, and form the semilunar ganglion and 
solar plexus, already referred to, at the pit of the 
stomach. 

E, E. The external and internal branches above 
described. 

Gr, H. The right and left coronary plexus, situate 
upon the heart, is derived almost exclusively from 



SPINAL NEKVES. 175 

the cervical or neck plexus of the great sympa- 
thetic ; situated as it is, so near the plexus of the 
chest, the disposition of this web is remarkable. 
With the exception of a few twigs from the 
pneumogastric, which winds around the heart, the 
coronary plexus is formed from nerves which have 
their origin in the cervical, or neck plexus. 

J, ]ST, Q. The inferior, middle, and superior cervi 
cal ganglia. The neck portion of the sympathetic 
is formed of three ganglia on each side, an infe- 
rior middle, and superior : the middle ganglion is 
in many cases wanting. 

The first branch, inferior, of the above ganglia, 
is situated on the lowest part of the neck, where 
it is fused with the first ganglion from the chest, 
and connected with the fifth, sixth, and seventh 
cervical nerves, and, at times, with the first nerve 
from the spinal cord. 

The middle ganglion, when present, is opposite 
to the fifth vertebra of the neck: it divides into 
four branches, one of which joins the superior 
ganglion, a second, the inferior, and the third is 
connected with the third, fourth, and fifth spinal 
nerves of the neck ; its fourth, or external branch, 
forms the middle nerve of the heart. 

The superior neck ganglion descends from the 
upper part of the sympathetic to the third, some- 
times the fourth and fifth vertebrae of the neck. 
Like all other ganglionic nerves, it divides into su- 
perior and inferior, external and internal branches ; 
we may add to these branches of thjs ganglion, the 
anterior y 



176. SPINAL NERVES. 

The neck ganglion is -Connected by large branches 
with the second and third spinal nerves of the 
neck : its upper part sends off a branch to the 
carotid artery (from xapof, lethargy ; the ancients 
supposed this artery to be the seat of drowsiness) 
in the neck, and forms around this important 
blood-vessel a plexus, or nervous web. From 
this plexus, or web, it sends numerous nervous 
communications to the nerves of the ear, the eye, 
one or two to the sixth nerve, (a moving nerve of 
the eye,) to the third nerve, (moving nerve of the 
eyelids,) and to the eighth and ninth nerves at the 
point of their emergence from the skull. 

The renal plexus, or that of the kidneys, is 
derived in part from the semilunar ganglion and 
solar plexus, posteriorly with which it is nearly 
on a level. 

The lumbar ganglia, or those of the loins, it is 
unnecessary to describe minutely: they are four 
in number, situated on the outer bodies of the loin 
spinal bones, their superior and inferior branches 
communicating with the ganglia above and below ; 
their external branches communicate with the 
lumbar spinal nerves, while the internal divide 
into two sets, the upper of which passes in front 
of the aorta, while the lower descends to give 
nervous power to the muscles at the lower section 
of the spine. 

Sacral ganglia, situated at the lowest portion of 
the spine, send off nerves to the muscles of the 
posterior region. 

The important organs contained in the chest, 



SPINAL NEKVES. 177 

abdomen, and pelvis, are mainly supplied with 
nerves from the sympathetic. 

This nerve seems to sustain a threefold office 
in the animal economy : first, that of a sensitive 
nerve to the parts to which it is distributed ; sec- 
ondly, a nerve of motion for certain muscles ; and 
thirdly, it influences the functions of secretion and 
nutrition. 

The power of contractility in the coats of the 
blood-vessels, no longer disputed by physiologists, 
is doubtless derived from the sympathetic, nor is 
it unreasonable to suppose, from its distribution 
over the glands in various parts of the system, 
that the secretions are materially affected by it. It 
does not appear, in itself, to be the seat of any 
peculiar nervous sympathies, but to be the great 
connector of those centres in which they have their 
origin. 



CHAPTER XL 
Sfje Nerbous System— Ets ?*testene. 

What is a sine qua non to the Perfect Performance of the Functions of the 
Nervous System — What Connection exists between the Mind and Brain not 
the Subject of Inquiry— A Limit to Human Investigation— We know there 
is a Connection — The Condition on which it may be maintained — Hereditary 
Descent— Intermarriages between certain Degrees of Consanguinity— En- 
tailment of Disease by Hereditary Descent— The Command given to the 
great Hebrew Law-giver — The Brain should not be Inactive— Pure Blood 
and Pure Air essential to a vigorous action of the Brain— External Agents 
— Consequences of their Effects being too long exerted — Continued Mental 
Action at any Period of Life Injurious— Particularly Injurious in Infancy— 
The Brain should not be Unusually Excited preceding or succeeding a 
Hearty Meal— The Morning of the Day the Proper Period for Mental Appli- 
cation — Reasons why it is so — Youth requires more Sleep than Age — Chil- 
dren in good Health require at least eight hours' Sleep— Feeble Children a 
longer Period — Mental Exertion must be controlled by Circumstances — Chil- 
dren whose Systems are not Developed— The Classification in Schools — At 
times highly Defective— Nature not to be flogged into Mental .Exertion- 
Arrangement of Study essential — Brain should not be compelled to act in 
Opposition to its Physical Energies — Insanity — The Brain cannot, at one 
time, serve two Masters — Skull susceptible of Fracture from Slight Causes 
-Case of the Boy struck by a Teacher in a Western School — His subse- 
quent Death and Post-Mortem Examination. 

The laws which, are requisite in order to main- 
tain a healthy state of the muscular powers, are 
equally necessary to preserve the integrity of the 
nervous system. 

As a- sine qua non to the perfect performance of 
the functions of the nervous system, whether those 
of the brain proper, (intellectual,) or of the me- 
dulla oblongata, (sensitive and motor,) or of the 
spinal cord, (sensitive and motor,) a primary 
healthy condition of the great cerebro-spinal 
centre (the brain and spinal marrow) must exist. 



HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 179 

What connection exists between the mind and 
the brain, or how the sentient being perceives im- 
pressions through the nervous system, it is not our 
intention or our province to inquire. There is a 
limit to human investigation, as there is to human 
ambition: wherever the natural inquirer directs 
his eager flight, whether to the anatomy orphysi 
ology of animal or vegetable life, whether to the 
chemical attractions and repulsions of matter, or 
to those regions on which the eye of the astrono 
mer lingers with untiring gaze and ceaseless won- 
der, he still meets with that line drawn, as a 
barrier, between the field that falls within the 
legitimate survey of the physical inquirer, and 
those unknown regions perhaps destined only to 
be revealed, by their Author, in the final recapitula- 
ting chapter of His mysterious operations. It is not 
permitted to finite intelligence to solve the great 
problems of Omniscience. 

In reference to the mind and brain, we know 
there is a connection which can only be maintained 
in its best condition by a healthy state of the brain. 

If the brain of the child be healthy, and is not 
forced by false notions of intellectual improve- 
ment into premature action, it is not likely, except- 
ing from causes which have been detailed in these 
pages, to be deranged in after life. 

Hereditary descent is one of the principal causes 
which give rise to nervous diseases : it may be 
traced in every form of insanity, from wandering 
intellect to the most furious maniacal paroxysms, 
and in those scrofulous affections which accom- 



180 HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

pany families through successive generations, some- 
times passing over one generation and attacking 
the next, but never becoming completely oblitera- 
ted until the race is extinguished. 

Intermarriages between certain degrees of con- 
sanguinity, particularly among the wealthy aris- 
tocracies of all countries, whose members are 
generally indolent epicureans, are a frequent cause 
of diseased nerves. Imbecility and idiocy are too 
frequently the heirlooms bestowed on successive 
generations, by these injudicious and unnatural 
alliances. The entailment of disease by hered- 
itary descent is a most formidable evil ; it throws 
obstacles in the way of recovery which can never 
be entirely removed; they are inseparable from 
the temperament in which they exist. Medical 
aid may indeed render them less formidable ; but 
they are intrenched within the fortress of nature, 
secured and guarded by morbid associations which 
have existed from the foundation of the embryo, 
are coeval with the dawn of infantile existence, 
and will be totally eradicated only in the tomb. 

If two individuals of weak frame and excitable 
nervous systems, injudiciously wedded, behold in 
the attenuated forms and pallid countenances of 
their offspring, the seeds of diseases to which 
death would be preferable, and will inevitably be 
the termination, as scrofula, madness or melan- 
choly, let them not blame nature, but themselves, 
for the inauspicious consequences which have been 
entailed on their miserable progeny. 

The command given to the great Hebrew law- 



HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 181 

giver, not to permit his people to marry within 
certain degrees of consanguinity, was and is in 
strict accordance with the laws of our being, and 
the wisdom of the prohibition has been confirmed 
by the experience of countless generations. 

The brain should not be inactive. Well regulated 
action increases the power and the size of the 
brain ; if constantly inactive, its size and power 
diminish : the great law of the muscular system, 
to wit, & judicious alternation of activity and repose, 
is equally applicable to the nervous system, and is 
the only true means by which the highest develop- 
ment of the intellectual faculties may be obtained. 

To insure a healthy and vigorous action of the 
brain, pure blood is essential, and consequently 
pure air; but as we have before adverted to this 
physiological condition, in the remarks on the 
effects of carbonic acid gas, and impure air gener- 
ally, on the nervous system, we must refer the 
reader to them. It is the absence of accustomed 
stimulus to the brain, which renders solitary con- 
finement so painful to endure as to appal even the 
most daring profligates. The want of a proper 
activity in the intellect and emotions, is no un- 
common cause of nervous diseases : it is the indus- 
trious mentally or physically, who are most happy ; 
it is the industrious mentally and physically, who 
are most healthful and happy. 

External agents acting unseasonably, or exerting their 
effects too long at any one period on the nervous sys- 
tem, are productive of serious evils. If we look at 
any object too long, the eye becomes bloodshot, 



182 HYGIENE OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

its nerves become wearied and painful, and we 
are compelled to desist ; perseverance in our gaze 
would produce greater irritation, ending perhaps 
in paralysis of the optic nerve and total loss of 
sight. 

Continued mental action is at any period of life 
injurious, but particularly so in infancy. There is 
no period of life when intense mental exertion, 
long continued, does not produce an injurious 
effect on the brain ; but in that of infancy, when 
its texture is soft, it may produce permanent 
mischief. The same observations we have made 
in reference to frequent muscular change in the 
young, apply with equal if not greater force to 
mental exertion. Yet how often is the brain of 
the precocious child racked to its centre, and stim- 
ulated to never-ceasing exertion, by rewards and 
praises for those intellectual achievements which 
have their origin in an excited brain supported by 
a weak physical fabric, daily undermined by the 
attempt to form men in intellect of infants in age. 

The brain should not be unusually excited preceding 
or succeeding a hearty meal, or during the process of 
digestion. The mind and body are so intimately 
connected, that any extraordinary mental excite- 
ment, either directly before or after eating a full 
meal, will occasion indigestion : the stomach, 
through its nervous connection with the brain, 
will react upon that organ, and if continued, 
hypochondriasis will be the inevitable result. 

The morning of the day, like that of life, is the proper 
period for mental application. There are many im- 



HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 183 

portant indications presented to us that the early 
part of the day is most appropriate for great 
mental labor. If the arterial circulation has been 
disturbed during the preceding day or evening, 
its equilibrium has been restored during the hours 
of sleep ; the nervous power has accumulated, and 
requires an object on which to expend its force; 
digestion does not interfere with the mental efforts 
of the brain ; no extra amount of nervous force 
is demanded by the physical condition of other 
portions of the system; it may be concentrated 
on the object immediately before it. 

Independently of the beneficial effects thus 
accruing to the subject of thought or study, by 
devoting the early hours of the day to its con- 
sideration, the physical necessities of the brain 
demand the night for repose. 

If the student possess a high and excitable ner- 
vous temperament, sleepless nights will succeed 
great evening mental excitement ; the mind cannot 
immediately divest itself of the image on which 
if*has previously dwelt with intensity, the mental 
grasp will not relax ; the circulation of the brain, 
a consequence of its continued nervous action, be- 
comes quickened, its vessels overloaded ; and cases 
are on record in which apoplexy or cerebral con- 
gestion has followed long-continued intense study 
at the close of the day. 

Youth requires more sleep than age. The muscu- 
lar and nervous systems alike substantiate the 
physiological truth that they require rest propor- 
tioned to the expenditure of their respective forces. 



184 HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The development of the muscular system, the 
continued activity and general buoyancy, the 
mental efforts in study during childhood, indepen- 
dently of the processes of nutrition, digestion, 
circulation and respiration, are attended with im- 
mense expenditure of nervous force ; the demand 
frequently exceeds the necessary supply, and even- 
ing finds the brain and the nervous and muscular 
systems of childhood in a state of great exhaus- 
tion : the rest must be proportioned to the expend- 
iture, or the system will languish. Early hours of 
rest are essential to vigorous development, phys- 
ically or mentally, in the young : the pallid cheek, 
the prematurely worn-out frame, the fretfulness of 
temper, and the general emaciation too often seen 
in children who are indulged (a term falsely ap- 
plied) in sitting up late at night, too plainly and 
unfortunately attest this truth. Children in good 
health require at least eight hours' sleep — those of 
feeble constitutions a longer period. 

Mental exertion must he controlled by circumstances. 
The power of the brain is modified by many circum- 
stances — by original organization, sensual excesses, 
objects of study, the emotions and moral feelings. 
Some men may continue with impunity, a mental 
exertion which would destroy the feeble texture of 
the brain in others. Bonaparte was, and Webster 
and Brougham are, men of the former order:* en- 
dowed by nature with large brains and great physi- 

* Since the above was -written, the great statesman has 
departed this life. He died on Sunday morning, between two 
and three A. M., October 24th, 1852. 



HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 185 

cal development, nature seems to have selected them 
as among the great mental leaders of mankind 
No fixed period of time can be allotted for mental 
labor in those whose systems have arrived at ma- 
turity. 

Children whose nervous and muscular systems 
are not completely developed, can sustain, "with 
difficulty, a much less amount than those of riper 
years. Nor will all children bear the same amount 
of mental exertion ; their physical organization of 
the brain differ equally with those of men. Teach- 
ers and others interested in the education of youth, 
should have this truth deeply impressed upon 
their minds, and allow it to regulate their govern- 
ment. 

The classification in schools of children of differ- 
ent ages, habits, physical conditions, and mental 
powers, is at times highly defective. The cane aud 
the rod frequently applied to the seemingly indo- 
lent pupil, when placed in a class, the other mem- 
bers of which possess mental and physical powers 
greatly superior to his own, are instruments of 
oppression and injustice. Nature is not to be flogged 
into exertions beyond her power, to gratify the 
ambition of a teacher in obtaining the applause of 
a board of trustees. 

' Amount of mental labor is considerably influ- 
enced by general health and conditions in life : the 
general health must be good, the emotions and the 
passions be at rest, to secure the highest degree of 
mental exertion. 

Arrangement of study is essential to the proper 



186 HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

direction of the moral and intellectual powers. The 
repetition of an act, either physically, morally, or 
intellectually, greatly facilitates future progress. 
A gradual increase in the amount of mental labor 
invigorates the brain and increases the intellectual 
powers. Method and arrangement are essentials 
in the proper exercise of mental as well as physi- 
cal force. He who acquires a habit of study at 
certain stated periods, will discharge his daily 
mental duties without occasioning that cerebral 
exhaustion which an equal amount of study will 
inevitably produce in those unaccustomed to regu- 
larity in their literary or scientific pursuits. 

The hrain should not be compelled to act in opposition 
to its physical energies, in obedience to the volition of 
the student. "We imagine there are few individuals 
who have not, at times, experienced that want of 
mental concentration necessary to the solution of 
abstract questions in literature or science, an in- 
aptitude over which high resolve to accomplish 
had no power, and which the repeated efforts of 
the will increased rather than diminished. Headache 
and vertigo or dizziness are the common results of 
this attempt to force beyond their power the ener- 
gies of the brain. 

In such cases the student should desist from his 
labors, and employ the mind on some less intri- 
cate subject, or cease from all mental exertion 
until the nervous force of the brain is properly 
recruited. 

It is scarcely necessary to repeat what we hav.e, 
in these pages, attempted to enforce with all the 



HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 187 

energy in onr power, that the mind should not be 
cultivated to the neglect of the physical powers. The 
periods allotted to the education of youth should 
be equally divided in the cultivation of the mental, 
physical, and moral powers : such cultivation as 
leads to a proper development of the moral facul- 
ties is too often neglected in our institutions of 
learning, as if the means to obtain wealth were the 
only object deserving the attention of the rising 
generation. To the individual whose moral edu- 
cation has, in childhood, been properly directed, 
the casualties, the misfortunes of life, are disarmed 
of half their sting ; he can look beyond the wreck 
of worldly fortune to that which is within, and be 
comforted in the midst of affliction. The long 
train of nervous diseases, hysterics, melancholy, 
epilepsy, apoplexy, and others, so often the effect 
of sudden impressions on the brain and nervous 
system, will pass by a mind thus matured as a 
transient cloud passes over the face of the sun. 

Insanity will not in such cases be so often the 
effect of pride struggling against poverty ; nor will 
imbecility and idiocy so frequently be the result 
of disorganization of the brain. 

The brain cannot serve two masters at the same time. 
Nothing great has ever been accomplished in 
science or art by a brain the functions of which 
have been divided between two subjects : concen- 
tration of power is necessary to produce perfection. 
Praxiteles could never have produced the finest 
specimen of sculpture of which antiquity can boast, 
norEubensand Titian have breathed into the can- 



188 HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

vas the spirit and expression of life, had their 
mental attention been distracted at the time by 
other objects. "When Nelson at Copenhagen, then 
second in command, was informed by a subordinate 
that the signal for recall was flying from the mast- 
head of the ship commanded by Admiral Parker, 
the first officer of the fleet, his reply was, u Nail 
mine to the mast-head:" his mental powers were con- 
centrated on accomplishing a victory, and he suc- 
ceeded. Napoleon Bonaparte may be adduced as 
another and more striking example of the power 
of mental concentration. When informed by his 
generals that it was impossible, at a particular sea- 
son, during one of his marches into the Austrian 
dominions, to cross the Alps, "Let them be lev- 
elled," said the conqueror of Austerlitz. His mind 
was fixed on the accomplishment of a mighty 
purpose : he saw nothing but his army marching 
over the Alpine mountains. 

The skull is susceptible of fracture from slight causes. 
Those intrusted with the care of youth should 
never, for any provocation, strike them on the 
head, particularly about the region of the temporal 
bone, where the skull, being thin and brittle, is most 
likely to fracture. 

Instances of this kind, unfortunately, sometimes 
occur. A few years since, in one of our Western 
States, a boy, who either neglected his studies or 
disobeyed his teacher, was struck on the head by 
the latter with a ruler. The child at the time 
evinced some small degree of pain, but no danger 
was apprehended. On the return of the youth to 



HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 189 

his home, lie was attacked with severe vomiting ; a 
physician was sent for, who, supposing the boy was 
about to be attacked with fever, prescribed the 
usual remedies in such cases. 

No improvement in the symptoms took place ; 
the parents became alarmed ; a medical consultation 
was required and acceded to, but the cause remain- 
ed still undiscovered. The poor boy lingered for 
several days, and ultimately died, apparently of 
congestion of the brain. A post-mortem examina- 
tion revealed the hidden cause — the skull had been 
fractured from the region of the ear to the top of 
the head ! The bone pressing upon the brain had 
by sympathy deranged the action of the pneumo- 
gastric nerve, and produced the vomiting, which 
had been considered as the precursor of fever. So 
painful and yet so salutary a warning should not 
pass unheeded by those to whom the education 
and care of children are intrusted. 



CHAPTER XII. 
Wottxine of 3Ltfe. 

Seeds of Plants, Eggs of Fowls— Force in the Egg— Putrefaction— Health- 
First Condition essential to the Integrity of Vital Action— The Phenom- 
ena of Starvation— Effects of protracted Abstinence— Second Condition 
necessary for the Preservation of Organic Force— The Third Condition- 
Theory of Combustion— Principal Source of Animal Heat— Quantity of 
Carbon exhaled from the LuDgs in Health per Hour— Clothing an Equiva- 
lent for a certain Amount of Food — The Kind and Quantity of Food— The 
Cooling of the Body— Effects of loud and continued Speaking, Crying of 
Infants, &c. — Connection of Vital Force and Animal Electricity — Subject of 
Animal Electricity New— Analysis of Electricity in Man, by Professor Miil- 
ler, of Berlin — The Connection between the Human Body, in Health and 
Disease, and Electricity, will be shown in the next Chapter. 

In the seeds of plants, the eggs of fowls, and 
the ova of mammalia, we recognize the presence 
of a remarkable force ; which, under the influ- 
ence of external agencies, such as impregnation, 
warmth, air and moisture, is roused into action, 
and exhibits, as the product of its activity, the 
development of organic forms. Thus, the grain 
of wheat placed in the earth by the husband- 
man, under the influence of the atmosphere, the 
moisture of the soil, and the rays of the sun, ger- 
minates, is developed into a plant, and reproduces 
many seeds of its own kind, through the agency 
of the vitality resident in it. So again, in the egg 
of the domestic fowl there exists a peculiar force, 
which is brought into action by the process of 
incubation, and which directs the phenomena of 



DOCTEINE OF LIFE. 191 

development and growth in such a manner that 
the chicken is produced with unerring certainty. 
There is also a similar force which presides over 
the development of the human embryo, and causes 
the elements of matter to be so combined together, 
that the infant, the child, and the man are success- 
ively produced. This force, found only in organized 
or living matter, and so different from all other forces 
in nature, is properly termed the vital force. Again, 
it appears in living animal tissue, not only as 
a cause of growth or development, but also as a 
power acting in opposition to those external agen- 
cies which tend to alter the form, structure, and 
composition of the tissue in which the vital energy 
resides. The amount of resistance which is offered 
to various external destructive agencies by the vital 
force, will be most readily understood by a refer- 
ence to the phenomena which occur in the dead 
body. It is well known that soon after death 
the putrefactive process commences ; that by this 
process, the body becomes darkened, presents a 
swollen appearance, exhales noisome odors, its tis- 
sues become softened, and finally so changed in 
character, it entirely disappears. Putrefaction con- 
sists in the operation of various chemical forces 
under the influence of the atmosphere, warmth, and 
moisture. Decompositi on of the body occurs subse- 
quent to death, because all resistance on the part of 
the vital force has ceased. The destructive chemical 
forces were just as active during life, but they pro- 
duced no sensible effect in consequence of the 
resistance of the vital force. Death is therefore 



192 DOCTKINE OF LIFE. 

that condition in which the resistance effected by 
the vital force entirely ceases ; and thus we see 
that life consists in a ceaseless antagonism between 
the forces of decay and the vital energy. 

Health is that state of the body in which 
these opposing forces are properly balanced. If 
the sum of the vital force exceeds that of the 
destructive forces, the result will be an increase in 
the size of the tissue in which vitality resides ; but 
if, on the other hand, the sum of the vital force is 
less than the sum of the destructive forces, the re- 
sult will be emaciation or atrophy. This propo- 
sition is strikingly exemplified in the growth of 
childhood and the decay of old age. 

"When we consider that, at each moment of life, 
a change is constantly going on in the matter 
which composes the organism ; that a portion of 
the structure is incessantly undergoing a transfor- 
mation into unorganized matter, and therefore los- 
ing its vital condition ; that every motion, every 
manifestation of physical force, every contraction 
of a muscle is accompanied by the transformation of 
matter just described ; that every act of the mind, 
every conception, every mental affection is followed 
by changes in the chemical composition of the se- 
cretions of the body ; that every thought, every 
sensation is accompanied by a change in the com- 
position of the substance of the brain ; we can 
readily understand that certain conditions must 
be fulfilled, in order to preserve the activity of the 
vital force, and to maintain the phenomena of life. 

The first condition essential to the integrity of 



DOCTKINE OF LIFE. 193 

the vital actions in animal bodies, is an adequate 
supply of fresh matter, to take the place of 
that which is constantly passing into decompo- 
sition, and, in this shape, is excreted from the 
body. This supply of new matter is furnished 
in the form of food or nutriment, which is first 
taken into the stomach, and after undergoing in 
that organ a chemical solution, is commingled with 
the bile and passed downwards into the small in- 
testines, from which it is taken up by the absorb- 
ent vessels, and poured by them into the general 
circulation of the blood. The fresh plastic material, 
mixed with the florid currents of life, is conveyed 
into the capillary vessels of all the tissues of the 
body, where, under the operation of the vital force, 
it speedily becomes an integral portion of the 
animal body, and in turn is transformed into dead 
matter and cast off as an effete substance. A por- 
tion of the food we daily consume is probably never 
organized into, or united with, the component tis- 
sues of the body, but is immediately used up in the 
maintenance of the vital processes. The phenomena 
of starvation are well known, and seem fitly to illus- 
trate the intimate relation which exists between the 
supply of food and the activity of the vital force. 
We know that protracted abstinence from food, 
in whatever manner produced, causes the human 
body to become emaciated, the eyes and cheeks 
to sink, the bones to project, the face to become 
pale and ghastly, the eyes wild and glistening, the 
breath hot, the mouth dry and parched, the strength 
to be greatly prostrated, the body to exhale a fetid 



194 DOCTEINE OF LIFE. 

odor, and death to supervene in a fit of maniacal 
delirium, or in horrible convulsions. On post- 
mortem examination, in cases of death by starva» 
tion, we find the following appearances : The body 
is much emaciated, and exhales an intolerable 
odor, the eyes are red and open, the skin, mouth, 
and throat dry, the stomach and intestines empty 
and contracted, the heart, lungs, and large vessels 
collapsed and destitute of blood, and putrefaction 
runs a rapid course. It should also be recollected 
that there are certain maladies, such as closure of 
the gullet, organic diseases of the stomach and of 
the intestinal absorbent vessels, which prove fatal 
by starvation. 

The second condition necessary for the preserva- 
tion of the organic force in an active state, is an 
adequate supply of pure atmospheric air. Physi- 
ologists have demonstrated the intimate relation 
which exists between oxygen, one of the constitu- 
ent elements of the atmosphere, and the vital pro- 
cesses in animated nature. During the process of 
respiration in animals, the venous blood gives off 
a portion of the carbonic acid with which it is 
charged, and absorbs in place thereof oxygen from 
the air contained in the little cells which constitute 
x great part of the volume of the lungs. By this 
mter change of carbonic acid for oxygen in the 
lungs, the blood loses the purple color it possessed 
on entering them, and acquires a bright red hue, 
while the pulmonic air suffers an increase in the 
quantity of its carbon and a diminution in the 
quantity of its oxygen. But the blood charged with 



DOCTKINE OF LIFE. 195 

oxygen (arterialized) passes on from the delicate 
membranaceous walls of the pulmonic air-cells 
through the pulmonary veins into the left side of 
the heart, and from this central organ it is dis- 
tributed through the arteries to all the tissues of 
the body. "When the scarlet streams of life reach 
the ultimate subdivisions of the arteries and enter 
the capillaries, or little hair-like tubes which con- 
nect the arteries and veins together, they bear still 
on their bosom the increased proportion of oxygen 
received in the lungs ; but during their passage 
through the capillaries they part with this excess 
of oxygen, and take up in place of it carbonie acid 
and water. In this manner the blood loses the 
scarlet hue, and assumes a purple color, or in 
other words, is changed from arterial to venous 
blood. Now what other phenomena attend the 
giving off of oxygen from the arterial blood in 
the capillaries, and the absorption of carbonic acid 
gas and water in its stead ? The oxygen passes 
through the thin membranous wall of the capil- 
laries, and under the direction of the nervous and 
vital energies, and partly by its chemical affinity, 
unites with the carbon and hydrogen contained in 
the tissues, causing the death of the matter with 
which it combines, and giving carbonic acid gas as 
the product of its union with carbon, and water as 
the product of its union with hydrogen. The car- 
bonic acid and water thus formed, are taken up by 
the blood, which now assumes the venous character, 
and is carried away in its current to be excreted or 
cast off from the body as effete or useless matter, 



196 DOCTEINE OP LIFE. 

through the lungs and other organs. While the 
blood is undergoing the process of purification, 
that is, is giving off the excess of carbonic acid gas 
and water, it again absorbs oxygen from the at- 
mosphere, becomes arterialized afresh, and is then 
distributed to the capillary vessels in every part of 
the body, to repeat the destructive process above 
described. 

But to supply the waste of the organic tissues 
occasioned by the combination of the oxygen of 
arterial blood with the elements (carbon and hydro- 
gen) of these tissues, the Author of nature has 
wisely provided that the current of blood, which 
carries oxygen to the tissues, shall also carry 
to the same destination the nutritious principles 
of food, previously elaborated in the stomach 
and intestines. In the meshes of the net-works 
formed by the capillaries in every part of the 
body, the new plastic material, furnished from 
food, becomes a component part of the organism, 
under the direction of the vital force, and thus the 
'waste of tissue occasioned by the action of oxygen 
may be fully compensated. "We are now better 
prepared to understand the phenomena of starva- 
tion, to which allusion has already been made. We 
can easily see that, if the process of destruction and 
removal of the elements of tissue by the action of 
oxygen goes on for a considerable time, and the 
place of the organized matter, so destroyed and 
removed, is not supplied by fresh matter derived 
from the food, emaciation must ensue. We can 
also readily understand that, as emaciation in- 



DOCTKINE OF LIFE. 197 

creases, the vital energy becomes weaker and 
weaker, until it ceases entirely to act, and death 
is the result. 

The third condition essential to the performance 
of the vital actions in animals, is the maintenance 
of a proper degree of warmth. As in chemistry, 
a certain temperature is required for the formation 
of many binary compounds, so in the human body, 
all the organic processes require a temperature of 
about 100 degrees. Every person knows that if, 
through the agency of atmospheric cold, the tem- 
perature of the body is depressed below a certain 
point, death is produced, that is, the vital force 
ceases to act. Now, in view of the necessity of a cer- 
tain degree of warmth, for the proper performance 
of the vital functions, the Almighty, in His wisdom, 
ordained that the human body should be a self- 
heating machine, or in other words, that it should 
have the power of developing and regulating the 
quantity of heat required for its organic processes. 
A singular fact illustrative of the skilful adaptation 
of the various processes going on in the body to 
each other, and their natural dependence, under 
the varying external conditions in which the indi- 
vidual may be placed, is, that the temperature of 
the human body remains the same beneath the 
burning sun of the tropics, and amid the eternal 
snows which surround the poles ; for it is clear that 
a much larger quantity of heat generated by vital 
processes, is required to maintain the temperature 
of the body at a given point in the frigid than in 
the equatorial regions. 



198 DOCTRINE OF LIFE. 

"We stated in another paragraph, that, by the 
action of the oxygen conveyed to the tissues of 
the organism by arterialized blood, the substance 
of those tissues is decomposed, and converted into 
carbonic acid gas and water, because the oxygen 
unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the tissues. 
Now when charcoal (carbon) is placed in a grate 
or furnace with some lighted shavings, the oxygen 
of the atmosphere unites with the charcoal, and 
such chemical union is termed combustion, the 
well-known phenomena of which are the produc- 
tion of heat, light, and carbonic acid gas. Again, 
in whatever way carbon may combine with oxygen, 
the act of combination cannot take place without 
the disengagement of heat. It is a matter of 
indifference whether the combination take place 
rapidly or slowly, at a high or a low temperature ; 
the amount of heat liberated is a constant quantity. 
The carbon of the food, which is converted into 
carbonic acid within the body, must give out ex- 
actly as much heat as if it had been directly burnt 
in the open air or in oxygen gas : the only differ- 
ence is that the amount of heat produced is dif- 
fused over unequal times. In oxygen the com- 
bustion is more rapid, and the heat more intense ; 
in air it is slower, the temperature is not raised so 
high, but it continues longer. (Liebig.) 

The principal source of animal heat is, therefore, 
the mutual action between the elements of the 
tissues, food, and oxygen, conveyed by the cir- 
culation of the blood to every part of the body ; 
or in other words, animal heat is generated mainly 



DOCTKINE OF LIFE. 199 

by the combustion of the food and tissues of the 
body through the agency of the oxygen of arterial 
blood. 

The quantity of oxygen withdrawn from the 
atmosphere each day and introduced within the 
system of an adult, is very considerable. Baron 
Liebig estimates it at about thirty-two and a 
half ounces. It is also clear that the quantity of 
oxygen consumed by the vital processes of the 
animal body is not constant, but varies according 
to the temperature of the atmosphere in which 
the animal is placed. The author just cited, says : 
" The animal body is a heated mass, which bears 
the same relation to surrounding objects as that 
of any other heated mass. It receives heat when 
the surrounding objects are hotter, and loses 
heat when they are colder. We know that the 
rapidity of cooling increases with the difference 
between the temperature of the heated body and 
that of the surrounding medium; that is, the 
colder the surrounding medium the shorter the 
time required for the cooling of the former. 
How unequal then must be the loss of heat in a 
man at Palermo, where the external temperature 
is nearly equal to that of the body, and in the 
polar regions, where the external temperature is 
from seventy to ninety degrees lower." 

The quantity of carbonic acid gas exhaled from 
the lungs of a healthy adult, under ordinary cir- 
cumstances, amounts to 1345.3 cubic inches, or 
about 636 grains per hour, according to the ex- 
periments of Yalentin and Brunner. This esti- 



200 DOCTRINE OF LIFE. 

mate corresponds pretty closely with the one 
furnished by Sir H. Davy, and does not widely 
differ from the results of experiments made by 
Allen and Pepys, and by Lavoisier. If this esti- 
mate be correct, the weight of pure carbon given 
off from the lungs is about 173 grains per hour, 
or 8 ounces per day. Andral and Gravarret have 
calculated the average quantity of carbon excreted 
from the lungs of a healthy adult, at 9 ounces in 
24 hours. 

Carbon is expelled from the organism as effete 
matter by the skin as well as the lungs. Though 
the quantity which escapes by the latter outlet is 
much greater than that passing out by the former, 
still the amount which is exhaled from the skin, 
commingled with the perspiration, should not be 
overlooked. Liebig estimates the total quantity 
excreted from the lungs and skin together, at 13.9 
ounces per day. 

Again, as the quantity of oxygen, taken into the 
system by the respiratory process, varies with the 
external conditions which surround the individual, 
so the quantity of carbon, exhaled from the sys- 
tem, varies with the same circumstances. In the 
polar regions a larger quantity of heat is neces- 
sary, in order to maintain the temperature of 
the body at a given point, than in temperate and 
equatorial regions, and we accordingly find a cor- 
responding increase in the quantity of oxygen con- 
sumed and of carbon excreted. Observations made 
at various temperatures, ranging between 38 deg. 
and 75 deg. Fahr., show that every increase of 



DOCTRINE OF LIFE. 201 

temperature equal to 10 deg. Fahr. causes a dimi- 
nution of about two cubic inches in the quantity 
of carbonic acid gas exhaled per minute. Experi- 
ments made on animals at much higher and lower 
temperatures than the above, also show that the 
higher the temperature of the respired air, the 
less is the amount of carbonic acid gas exhaled 
into it, while the nearer it approaches zero the 
more does the carbonic acid increase. 

"It is evident that the supply of animal heat, 
lost from the body by radiation and conduction, is 
kept up by the chemical action of the oxygen of 
arterial blood upon the elements of food and tissue. 
If we may be permitted to use a familiar illustra- 
tion, the animal body acts, in this respect, as a 
furnace, which we supply with fuel. It signifies 
nothing what intermediate forms food may as- 
sume, for the last change is uniformly the conver- 
sion of its carbon into carbonic acid, and of its hy- 
drogen into water; the unassimilated nitrogen of 
the food, along with the unburned or unoxidized 
carbon, is expelled in the urine or in the solid 
faeces. In order to maintain a constant or uni- 
form temperature in the furnace, we must vary 
the supply of fuel according to the external tem- 
perature, that is, according to the supply of 
oxygen. 

"In the animal body the food is the fuel ; and 
with a proper supply of oxygen, a just degree of 
heat is produced by its oxidation or combustion. 
In winter, when we take exercise in a cold atmo- 
sphere, and when consequently the amount of 
9* 



202 DOCTRINE OF LIFE. 

inspired oxygen increases, the necessity for food 
containing carbon and hydrogen increases in the 
same ratio ; and by gratifying the appetite thus 
excited, we obtain the most efficient protection 
against the most piercing cold. A starving man 
is soon frozen to death ; and animals of prey in 
the arctic regions, far exceed in voracity those of 
the torrid zone. 

"In cold and temperate climates, the air, which 
incessantly strives to consume the body, urges 
man to laborious efforts in order to furnish the 
means of resistance to its action, while in hot 
climates the necessity of labor to provide food is 
far less urgent. 

"Our clothing is merely an equivalent for a 
certain amount of food." The more warmly we 
are clothed the less urgent becomes the appetite, 
because the loss of heat by cooling, and conse- 
quently the amount of heat to be supplied by 
the food, is diminished. If we were naked, 
like certain savage tribes, or if in hunting or 
fishing we were exposed to the same degree of cold 
as the Samoiedes, we should be able with ease to 
consume ten pounds of flesh and perhaps a dozen 
tallow candles daily, as warmly-clad travellers have 
related of these people with astonishment. We 
should then, also, be able to take the same quan- 
tity of train oil without bad effects, because the 
carbon and hydrogen of this substance would only 
suffice to keep up the equilibrium between the 
external temperature and that of our bodies. 



DOCTEINE OF LIFE. 203 

" The kind and quantity of food should there- 
fore be regulated by the temperature of the at- 
mosphere, by the quantity of heat given off to 
the surrounding medium, and by the amount of 
physical labor which the individual undergoes. 

" The cooling of the body, generally, increases 
the amount of food necessary to supply the vital 
processes. The mere exposure to the open air, in 
a carriage or on the deck of a ship, by increasing 
radiation and evaporation from the surface, in- 
creases the loss of heat, and compels us to eat mdre 
than usual. The same is true of those who drink 
large quantities of cold water, which is mostly 
given off in the form of vapor at the temperature 
of the body, (98.5 deg.) It increases the appetite, 
and persons of weak constitutions find it neces- 
sary, by continued exercise, to supply the system 
with the oxygen required to restore the heat ab- 
stracted by the cold water. Loud and continued 
speaking, the crying of infants, moist air, all exert 
a decided and appreciable influence on the appe- 
tite for food and the amount of it which is taken." 
(Liebig.) 

In the preceding paragraphs we have dwelt at 
some length upon the evolution of animal heat 
by the chemical combination between the oxygen 
of the blood in the capillary vessels and the car- 
bon of the tissues, giving carbonic acid gas as the 
product of such combination. However, the com- 
bustion of another element of food and tissue, 
hydrogen, plays a no less important part in the 
heating process of the animal than carbon. The 



204 DOCTRINE OF LIFE. 

constant product of the union of oxygen and hy- 
drogen is water. This fluid is excreted from, the 
body by the kidneys, and is also exhaled from the 
organism in the form of vapor, through the skin 
and lungs. The whole quantity of water lost by 
exhalation from the cutaneous and respiratory sur- 
faces of a healthy man, according to the experi- 
ments of Yalentin, averages about three and a half 
pounds per day, of which two and a half pounds 
represent the amount of cutaneous exhalation, 
both sensible and insensible, and the remaining 
pound represents the amount of watery vapor 
expired from the lungs. But it should be borne 
in mind that the quantity of aqueous vapor lost 
by expiration and transpiration is not constantly 
the same, and that it is powerfully influenced by 
the temperature, the hygrometric state, and the 
stillness of the atmosphere, and the amount of 
exercise or physical labor performed by the indi- 
vidual. 

Intimately connected with the manifestations of 
the vital force, of which we have been speaking 
in the preceding pages, is another subject which 
demands a brief notice at our hands ; and that sub- 
ject is animal electricity. Throughout the domain 
of inanimate nature various changes in the form 
and relation of matter are accompanied by a dis- 
turbance of the equilibrium of the electric fluid, in 
consequence of which currents of that fluid are 
produced, which continue till the equilibrium is 
completely restored. If we bear in mind the 
changes in the form of matter, which are incessantly 



DOCTEINE OF LIFE. 205 

occurring in every part of the organism, through 
the combustion of the food and the tissues by means 
of oxygen, we shall not be surprised to find that 
the human body is pervaded with electrical cur- 
rents, generated, so far as we know, by the changes 
in the form of matter to which we have alluded. 
That animal electricity, or electrical currents ex- 
cited by the organic processes in animal bodies, 
performs a very important part in the phenomena 
of life, we cannot doubt, although in the present 
state of science we are not prepared to make an 
exact and complete statement of what that part is. 

The subject of animal electricity is comparatively 
new. It is also one to which the minds of many 
acute observers are now turned, and rapid advance- 
ment in the knowledge of it is almost daily made. 
We now propose to make a brief exposition of 
what is at present known concerning animal elec- 
tricity, and for this purpose shall quote the state- 
ments of Professor M uller, of Berlin, and the later 
views of Dr. Emil du Bois-Reymond. 

"With regard to free electricity in man, the re- 
sults obtained from experiments performed with 
the aid of delicate electrometers, according to Miil- 
ler, are the following : 

1. As a general rule, the kind of electricity 
evidenced by man in the healthy state is the posi- 
tive. 

2. It seldom exceeds in intensity the electricity 
excited when copper, which communicates by a 
conducting substance with the earth, comes in con- 
tact with zinc. 



206 DOCTKINE OF LIFE. 

3. Excitable persons of a sanguine tempera 
ment have more free electricity than indolent pei 
sons of a phlegmatic temperament. 

4. The quantity of electricity is greater in the 
evening than at other periods of the day. 

5. Women are more frequently negatively elec- 
tric than men, although there is no determinate rule 
for the greater prevalence of this kind of electri- 
city in them. 

6. In winter, the bodies of persons who are very 
cold, at first give evidence of no electricity ; but it 
gradually becomes manifest as warmth is restored. 

7. The body, when perfectly naked, manifests 
the same phenomena, which are also common to 
all parts of it. 

8. During the continuance of rheumatic affec- 
tions, the electricity of the body seems to be reduced 
to zero, and to become manifest again as the disease 
subsides. It appeared to Humboldt also that rheu- 
matic patients had an insulating action on the feeble 
current produced by a simple galvanic circle. 

The following have been published as the con- 
clusions drawn from Du Bois-Eeymond's re- 
searches : 

1. The muscles and nerves, including the brain 
and spinal cord, are endowed during life with an 
electro-motive power, (i. e., the power to produce 
currents of electricity.) 

2. This electro -motive power acts according to 
a definite law, which is the same in the nerves and 
muscles, and may be briefly stated as the law of 
the antagonism of the longitudinal surface, {%. e., the 



DOCTKINE-OF LIFE. 207 

surface of the sides,) and of the surface of the trans- 
verse section, ({. e., the surface of the ends.) The 
electrical current on the longitudinal surface is 
positive, and that on the transverse section, negative. 

3. As the nerves have no natural transverse sec- 
tion, their electro -motive power, in a state of rest, 
is not appreciable by the electrometer, unless they 
have previously been divided. 

4. The muscles have two natural transverse sec- 
tions, (one at each extremity,) and may show their 
electro-motive power without being divided. How- 
ever, the electro-motive power of the undissected 
muscle is often more or less concealed by the con- 
trary action of a muscular layer situated on the 
natural transverse section, called the parelectronomic 
(equal electric) layer. The contrary electro-motive 
power of the parelectronomic layer may be increas- 
ed by cooling the animal. 

5. Every minute particle of the nerves and mus- 
cles acts according to the same law as the whole 
nerve or muscle. 

6. The electrical currents which the nerves and 
muscles produce in circuits, of which they form 
part, imist be considered only as derived portions 
of much more intense currents, circulating in the 
interior of the nerves and muscles around their ulti- 
mate particles. 

7. The electro-motive power lasts after death, 
or in dissected nerves and muscles after separation 
from the body of the animal, as long as the excit- 
ability of the nervous and muscular fibre con- 
tinues ; and this obtains whether these fibres are 



208 DOCTBINE OF LIFE. 

allowed to die gradually from the cessation of the 
conditions necessary to the support of life, or 
whether they are suddenly deprived of their vital 
properties by heat, the action of chemical agents, 
&c. 

8. In different contractile tissues of the body the 
electro-motive power is always proportioned to the 
mechanical power of the tissue. 

9. Other animal tissues may, indeed, produce 
electro-motive action ; but it is neither so strong as 
the same action of the nerves and muscles, nor so 
regular ; nor does it vanish when vitality ceases to 
exist in the tissues ; nor does it, lastly, undergo 
those sudden variations of intensity and direction, 
which may be thus briefly stated : 

10. The electrical current in muscles when in 
the act of contraction, and in nerves when convey- 
ing motion or sensation, undergoes a sudden and 
great negative variation of its intensity. 

11. Muscles inactive from the contrary action of 
the parelectronomic layer, when contracting, be- 
come active in the opposite direction to that which 
muscles in a state of rest exhibit. Hence it must 
be concluded that the electro-motive force of the 
parelectronomic layer remains constant in the act 
of contraction. 

12. The negative variation of the musculo -elec- 
trical current is not a permanent one during per- 
manent contractions. It consists rather of a series 
of single and sudden variations of the intensity, 
following each other in rapid succession. 

13. It has not yet been ascertained whether, in 



DOCTBINE OF LIFE. 209 

the act of contraction, the muscular current is 
only diminished or wholly vanishes, or whether 
itchanges its direction. 

14. After the contraction has ceased, the current 
does not suddenly recover its original intensity ; 
hut the protracted contraction of the muscle has a 
slight subsequent influence on the intensity of the 
current. 

15. The negative variation of the muscular cur- 
rent in the act of contraction fully explains Mat- 
teucci's so-called induced contractions. 

16. If any part of a nerve is submitted to the 
action of a permanent current of electricity, the 
nerve in its whole extent suddenly undergoes a 
material change in its internal constitution, which 
disappears on breaking the circuit, as suddenly as 
it came on. This change, which is called the elec- 
trotonic state, is evidenced by a new electro-motive 
power, which every point of the whole length of 
the nerve acquires during the passage of the cur- 
rent, so as to produce, in addition to the usual cur- 
rent, a current in the direction of the extrinsic 
current. As regards this new mode of action, the 
nerve may be compared to a voltaic pile, and the 
transverse section loses its essential import. Hence 
the electric effects of the nerve, when in the electro- 
tonic state, may also be observed in nerves with- 
out previously dividing them. 

17. In the muscles the electrotonic state does not 
manifest itself as it does in the nerves. 

18. Approaching death, and severe injuries of 
the muscular and nervous systems, cause other 



210 DOCTKINE OF LIFE. 

modifications of the electro-motive power of the 
nerves and muscles, of which some are permanent, 
and connected with the total extinction of that 
power; others are only transitory. 

19. The electric phenomena of motor and sensi- 
tive nerves are identical. Both classes of nerves 
transmit electric irritation in both directions. 
(Vide Du Bois-Reymond on Animal Electricity, p. 
208 et seq.) 

We have thus briefly sketched the outline of 
what is now positively known concerning the laws 
which regulate the action of the vital force. "We 
have also mentioned the close relation, which ex- 
periments have shown to exist, between animal 
electricity and the vital actions. We will next 
proceed to state our own views on this subject 
more at length, particularly with regard to the 
relation which exists between electricity and the 
human body in health and disease. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 
3P5tlosoj)f)g of SLife, 

Philosophy of Life— Differs from the Doctrine of Life— Importance of Healtl 
—A peculiar Element in Nature— Life riot a Simple— It is this Principlf 
which pervades all Nature — It is not in itself Vitality — Earth, Air, and 
Water — Atmospheric Elements next in the Scale— Stomach — The Natural 
Historian — Electricity — Its attractive Force — Mingles with Human Mechan- 
ism — Influences of Electricity — Mind — The Brain of Lunatics — The Muscu- 
lar Power of the Chest— The Functions of the Heart— Allopathy— Hydro- 
pathy— Simplicity in the Healing Art— Too much Art and too little Science 
—Disease must have a Cause— Illustrative Cases, by Dr. Parmly ; by the 
Author. 

The philosophy of life, as applied to the preser- 
vation of health, differs widely from the scholastic 
doctrine of life which we endeavored to set forth 
in the preceding chapter. 

The importance of health, the means which may 
be used for the prevention of disease, the various 
ways in which health may be impaired by de- 
rangements of the solids and fluids in particular 
systems, as those of the muscular, nervous, ab- 
sorbent, secretive, circulating, respiratory, &c, 
must necessarily enter largely into the considera- 
tion of the true philosophy of life. 

There is, in nature, a peculiar element to each 
of the above, which, uniting together, form one 
great and indivisible whole, consisting in its sub- 
divisions, of earth, air, water, electricity, mind. 

Life is not then a simple but a compound, com- 
posed of various elements, the highest and most 



212 PHILOSOPHY OP LIFE. 

active among which in the material world, is elec- 
tricity. 

It is this principle, or fluid, or ether, or whatever 
name we may choose to assign to it, which per- 
vades universal nature; which can, as shown in 
these pages in the cases of Antoine Le Blanc and 
the Scottish murderer, call into life-like action the 
ghastly and mutilated forms of death, impart to 
them muscular movement, and surround them 
with all those seeming attributes of existence un- 
distinguishable from its realities, save in the spirit 
imparted by its Author; which upheaves the 
ocean and levels the mountain ; which buries the 
living and the dead, the beauty of youth and the 
decrepitude of age, the depositories of science and 
the workshops of art, in the darkness and des- 
olation of ages. 

It is not in itself vitality, but a controlling 
force which imparts vigor to vitality when the 
latter is called into action on organic matter ; 
hence its direct and all-pervading influence on the 
functions of life. 

This may be illustrated by viewing it in con- 
nection with the more ponderable and grosser 
elements in the world without. 

Earth and water were doubtless the first ele- 
ments in the formation of our globe. The exist- 
ence of the latter, so beautifully and figuratively 
expressed by the Hebrew writer, "The Spirit of 
God moved upon the face of the waters," furnishes 
conclusive evidence that the liquid element was 
either coeval with, or immediately succeeded, the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 213 

formation of the earth, of which, by its admixture, 
it forms the principal part of the gravity. 

Here we find two important links in the chain 
of nature; the more gross elements, but not the 
most unimportant. It is a singular fact, well 
worthy the attention of the inquirer into natural 
history, that these elements bear the same relation 
to each other in the human system, that they do 
in the inorganic material world, one fifth being 
solid and four fifths fluid. 

As we ascend in the scale of organic existence, 
the atmospheric elements next present themselves 
to our attention ; they bear the same relative pro- 
portions to the more ponderous fluids that the 
latter do to the solids. 

Of a higher grade of rarity and expansiveness, 
and seemingly more closely allied to a self-consti- 
tuted principle, they are intimately connected with 
both the aqueous and solid elements. 

This fact is illustrated in the convulsions occa- 
sioned by the storm and the tempest, when the 
mountains echo the voice of the thunder, and the 
lightning rends asunder the proud oak of the 
forest ; when the ocean, lashed into fury by the 
winds of the tempest, dashes wildly on the crested 
shore, and humanity, in silent ruins, fills the heca- 
tombs of its wrath ; when the hills are uprooted 
and the forests desolated. 

As the stomach is the receptacle for the solids 
and fluids in their just proportions, the lungs are 
the recipients of the atmospheric elements in cor- 
responding relations. When the adaptation of 



214 PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 

these organs and elements to each, other is com- 
plete, so far health is the result. 

The natural historian might here end his re- 
search and the physiologist his labors, but a higher 
and more important principle of life commands 
the attention of the latter — that of electricity, the 
fourth link in the chain of nature. 
« We have heretofore in these pages drawn a com- 
parison amounting almost to an identity between 
the electric and the nervous fluid. We shall now 
pursue the investigation, fully convinced that elec- 
tricity opens an inexhaustible store for physiologi- 
cal research, and involves and develops principles 
most intimately connected with the best relations 
of organic life. 

Electricity is as much more powerful and subtle 
than the atmosphere, as the latter is than water ; 
it approaches much nearer an innate power and 
voluntary action : but still its alliance with the 
grosser elements cannot be dissevered ; its grasp 
fixes alike on the loftiest summits of the Alpine 
mountain, as in the minutest atom which the 
microscope can place within the field of vision. 

By its attractive force it retains the planets in 
their orbits, and controls them in their revolu- 
tions ; the pulsations of the heart are obedient to 
its stimulus, and the general functions of organic 
life sustained. 

It mingles with human mechanism equally with 
the other elements to which, we have alluded. 
The experiments of Matteucci (page 156) clearly 
demonstrated the power of electricity over the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 215 

nervous system, of which the brain is the centre : 
it is as much the natural element of the cerebro- 
spinal system, as air is that of the lungs, or fluid 
and solid food that of the stomach. 

We have heretofore shown that every muscle, 
gland or tissue in the system, from the finest 
muscular fibre to those powerful levers which 
move the larger bones, is stimulated into action 
by the nerves of the brain or spinal cord ; that 
the latter are the connecting links of animal and 
mental being, through every grade of ascending 
intellect and superior animal organization. 

If, as we have seen, electricity can stimulate the 
nerves into action, when vitality, so far as we can 
judge from its manifestations, has fled; if the 
state of the system be changed electrically, there 
must be a corresponding change in the functions 
of life ; if the relations are truly stated, the argu- 
ment in favor of electrical influence is irrefragable. 

The influences of electricity over the nervous 
system, bodily and mentally, may be felt in that 
peculiar condition or feeling of both, when the 
earth for a long season has not been watered by 
the refreshing shower, and when a sun, almost 
tropical in its influences, has nearly deprived our 
planet of its electric principle. Who has not 
felt the languor, the weariness, the sense of half 
suffocation, the nervous headache, thus occasioned ; 
and more especially the indescribable sensation 
produced in the nervous system, when the gath- 
ering cloud in the west, charged with u heaven's 
artillery," sent forth its thunders and lightnings 



216 PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. " 

to relieve the physical oppressions to. which we 
have adverted? 

We have yet to advert to another element ot 
vitality, superior in its origin, its functions and its 
end to all others — Mind. An emanation from the 
Deity, it goes forth in its spiritual dignity, con- 
nected with, yet distinct from, the grosser elements 
of life. In the contemplation of this great attri- 
bute, we stand on the farthest bank of reason's 
Eubicon. We are aware of its existence by its 
manifestations, but its origin rests in the revela- 
tions of the future, among the 'arcana of the works 
and wonders of God. 

It is however, in some way, connected with 
matter, and the medium of that connection is elec- 
tricity. Through this conductor it reaches the 
grosser elements of our being, stamping its im- 
press on our organization, and forming an index 
to the workings of disease when such organization 
is deranged. 

It is thus, physiologically considered, the con 
nector between mind and matter ; the power but 
not the essence of vitality. 

When this element is deranged or disturbed, as 
m the instances we have adduced above, in relation 
to a long drought and the returning thunder gust, 
the vital functions feel the shock, the link gives 
way, the relative associations of mind and matter 
suffer a transient change ; hence the brain of 
lunatics is always affected in those electrical con- 
ditions of the atmosphere produced by what are 
termed changes of the moon. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 217 

The most direct medium through which the 
vital force can be increased is that of electricity. 

Science has placed within our reach this ele- 
ment, and provided us with ample means by which 
we may regulate the functions, through its infln 
ences, at our pleasure. 

Its physiological condition, and peculiar adapt- 
ation to the brain and spinal cord, have already 
been stated. Nature, uniform in all her operations, 
has decreed that electricity shall be the natural 
element of the nervous centre, as that the atmos- 
phere shall be that of the lungs, and food and 
drink the elements of the stomach. As all the 
organic functions are performed through the influ- 
ence of this subtle and powerful agent exciting the 
nerves, and through them the muscular system, 
we are thus enabled to regulate those functions at 
our pleasure. . 

Is the muscular power of the chest diminished, 
its contractility deranged, and the necessary ex- 
pansion of the lungs thereby prevented? By 
electricity we can restore the powers of the for- 
mer, and thus facilitate the progress of the latter to 
a healthy expansion. 

Are the functions of the heart deranged, the 
circulation impeded, and the sufferer exposed 
thereby to sudden death ? The electric force will 
restore its muscular action, the current of blood 
will again freely flow in its wonted channel, the 
electrical relations of the system are changed, until 
strength is obtained and the disease cured. 

The functions of the stomach, the liver, the 
10 



218 PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 

kidneys, the bladder, may be restored to their 
normal condition in the same way. 

Electropathy, in the midst of that numerous 
family which of late years has sprung into exist- 
ence, each member of which has doubtless some 
good attributes; is based upon the principle of 
electricity, the animating and sustaining power oi 
human organization. There is no other agent in 
the universe save electricity, by which energy can 
be imparted to the vital principle : it pervades all 
matter, and seems to be a universally controlling 
law. 

The various forms of attraction are necessarily 
exercised for the preservation of all organized 
bodies, and every variation in the force affects 
their organization. If it be admitted that attrac- 
tion and electricity are identical, it follows neces- 
sarily, that the latter is the great organizing power. 

These physiological conclusions are intimately 
connected with the foundations of a system having 
for its object the regulation and control of the 
vital functions. * 

Though mysteriously connected with mind, and 
complicated in its structure and combinations, 
human mechanism is still matter, and subject to 
the laws which govern matter. 

In medical practice matter must be regulated 
by matter, vitality by the vitalizing principle. 
Allopathy, Hydropathy, and the large family of 
which they form a portion, have in each some 
inherent good or bad elements: good if properly 
applied ; the reverse if improperly. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 219 

Simplicity in the healing art has ever been re- 
jected bj mankind : the leper, when directed by 
the prophet simply to bathe in the waters of Jor- 
dan that he might be cleansed, exclaimed angrily 
and derisively, "Are not Abana and Pharpar, 
rivers of Damascus, better than all the rivers in 
Israel ? May I not wash in these and be cleansed ? " 
From the days of the Messiah to the present pe 
riod, the art of curing disease has been practised, 
yet what is it at the present moment? What 
scientific system has been devised to heal disease? 
by any fixed laws? Five drops of laudanum 
would produce similar effects on one individuai 
to those which twenty drops would produce on 
another ; corresponding effects would be produced 
by opium, cathartic, or other pills. 

How necessary then to apply an antidote to 
disease which all have within their power, a 
watchful regard and attention to habits ! Should this 
have been neglected, the next important step is 
to trace out the cause and remove it. 

We have too much art, too little science in the 
treatment of disease. We are too apt to- general- 
ize in our systems of therapeutics ; too ready to 
prescribe a panacea, without investigating those 
shades and symptoms in a disease, which may 
almost have entirely altered its specific character. 
We administer a remedy for the effect, and neglect 
the cause. 

As an illustration of this fact we present the two 
following cases. The subject of the former was an 
eminent physician in this city ; that of the latter, a 



220 PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 

young lady, also of New- York. We are indebted 
for an account of these cases to Dr. Eleazer Parmly, 
whose skill as an operating dentist, and integrity as 
a man, do not admit of a doubt. 

" Some time since," said Dr. Parmly, " I was 
consulted by a physician in this city, suffering, as 
he supposed, from a disease of the jaw termed os- 
teo sarcoma. A surgeon had been previously con- 
sulted, who advised the removal of a portion of 
the upper jaw-bone; the time for the operation 
had been appointed, when I was requested to 
make an examination of the affected part by the 
physician ; who applied to me for that purpose. 

" I immediately discovered that a portion of the 
root of a tooth, which had been broken, was the 
cause of the diseased condition of his mouth, and 
advised its immediate removal, which, although 
with much doubt as to the beneficial effect on the 
physician's mind, yet he submitted to the opera- 
tion. 

" The event, however, proved the true cause of 
disease ; for before the time appointed for the ope- 
ration of removing a part of the jaw the disease 
was removed, and the doctor restored to his usual 
good health. 

" The second case, that of Miss J., similar to the 
above in its appearance and symptoms, had been 
decided, by a consultation of physicians, to be 
curable only by extirpating the diseased portion 
of the jaw. Before the period fixed upon for the 
operation, she was induced, by her friends, to have 
her teeth examined, and, as in the former case, a 



PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 221 

portion of a diseased tooth had produced all the 
painful symptoms of the case, which, when re- 
moved, a perfect cure was effected, and the neces- 
sity for a surgical operation was declared by her 
medical advisers no longer to exist." 

Disease never has existed, never can exist, with- 
out a cause. Among the many causes of derange- 
ment in the physical system, decayed and decaying 
teeth frequently induce disease, from the absorption 
of a specific virus which is exuded from them, or 
from a pressure of their spiculas on some branch 
of the nerves which supply the upper and under 
jaw. In the former case the fluid secreted by the 
salivary glands, as the parotid, of which we have 
before spoken, becomes impregnated by the virus 
from the diseased teeth ; hence one of the causes 
of indigestion and torpidity of the stomach. 

To the above cases of Dr. Parmly we add the 
following which passed under our own observation : 

We were called on by a physician to visit a 
lady, Mrs. P., whom our medical friend had been 
attending, for the purpose of a consultation as to 
the best mode of treating her case. The lady had 
been supposed to be, and actually was, laboring 
under severe dyspepsia, accompanied by great 
nervous debility. She had been under medical 
treatment for some months, without experiencing 
any relief. 

Supposing the cause might possibly exist in the 
teeth, we examined them : they were, generally, in 
a decaying or decayed condition ; in some, the 
nerve had been completely destroyed by stimulant 



222 PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 

application or atmospheric action : these were 
extremely offensive, and we recommended their 
immediate removal, which was effected. The res- 
idue susceptible of the process were in a few days 
filled with gold. From the latter period, indeed 
we may say from the time the teeth were extract- 
ed, the symptoms of dyspepsia disappeared, the 
nervous system resumed its wonted energy, and a 
few weeks beheld her the active superintendent of 
those domestic affairs from which a painful dis- 
ease thus induced had so long separated her. 

A second case was that of a lady, Mrs. N., who 
had been under the medical treatment of her 
family physician for seven months, for that truly 
painful disease, neuralgia. 

The whole list of narcotics, nervines, and tonics, 
as morphine, valerian, quinine, and others, had, in 
vain, been resorted to. No permanent relief was 
obtained; her nervous system had become shattered 
and feeble, yet peculiarly excitable. 

As a last resort, her physician placed her under 
our care, at the same time giving her a certificate 
to that effect. 

On examining the lady's mouth, we found 
the tooth known as the dens sapientice, or wisdom 
tooth, in a highly decayed condition : it had pro- 
duced great inflammation in the fascia surround- 
ing it, and had excited and contracted, through 
the facial nerves, the muscles of the face. 

So great was the excitability of the nervous 
system, that it required nine hours' constant per- 
suasion to induce her to submit to the removal of 



PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 223 

the diseased tooth. Having obtained her consent, 
we removed it very readily with an instrument 
invented by the late Dr. Physic of Philadelphia. 
The result of the operation was the complete 
restoration of the health of Mrs. E". 

We will present one more case, in order to im- 
press upon our readers the necessity of tracing 
disease to its cause, if a radical cure is expected. 

Miss C, an interesting young lady, had a disease 
of the antrum of the upper jaw, (the antrum is 
the interior hollow cavity of the upper jaw.) 
She had consulted numerous medical gentlemen, 
some of whom prescribed for her, while others 
conscientiously declined, considering it as hopeless, 
beyond the reach of medical art. 

The physician who watched her case most care- 
fully called on us, and requested that we would 
go with him and examine the painful case. "We 
consented to do so. 

Upon repairing to her dwelling, a painful spec- 
tacle presented itself, in her situation. Her jaws 
were locked, her teeth clenched ; no solids could 
be passed into the stomach. The right side of the 
head beggared description; its appearance was 
scarcely human : seven large tumors, commencing 
at the angle of the eye, extended below the pos- 
terior part of the jaw to the centre of the neck. 

Her physician stated that he had no hope of her 
recovery : her appearance indeed fully justified 
the hopelessness of her case, even in the mind of 
a medical gentleman deservedly high in his profes- 
sion, and fertile in professional resources. 



224 PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE. 

Having taken the young lady under our profes- 
sional care, the first object to be gained was that 
which might enable her to open the contracted 
jaws : we accomplished this desirable end in 
twenty -four hours. 

The extension of the jaws permitted us to in- 
troduce nourishment into the stomach, which for 
some time had in vain been attempted. 

Upon inspecting the mouth, we found several 
defective teeth, which were immediately removed ; 
a hole was perforated through the floor of the 
antrum, and in six iveeks this interesting young 
lady, whose case was considered beyond medical 
or surgical aid, who had not tasted solid food 
for seventeen days previously to our seeing her, 
was restored to perfect health. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Electricity: its Connections toitf), an& influences ana 
Action on, JLVoinct 33o&ies* 

A Portion of the Functions of Organic Life — Study, Grief, Care — The Mourner 
at the Grave of his Friend— Dr. Marshall Hall— Experiment with the Ley- 
den Jar — A Dry Atmosphere — A Current of Damp Air — Neuralgia, Tic 
Doloreux, Rheumatism — Dr. Milne Edwards — Dr. Willson Philip — Brydone 
—The Atmospheric Influences of an Equilibrium in Electricity— Sirocco of 
the South of Europe — Kamsin of Asia — Brydone's Remarks on Electricity 
on a Visit to Mount Etna— A Lady in Switzerland— Two Gentlemen of 
Geneva— The Influences of Electricity upon Respiration— Sir Humphrey 
Davy— Dr. Philip's Experiment— Mr. Atkinson's Cases of Cholera. 

A portion of the functions of organic life are 
voluntary, but those upon which its existence 
chiefly depends, involuntary. 

Hence the greater portion of electric force is 
expended on those portions of the system that are 
not immediately influenced by the will ; that is, 
on those of the brain and nervous system which 
excite involuntary muscular action. 

It may suffer exhaustion from an excess either 
of voluntary or involuntary action in the nervo- 
muscular systems. 

If the stomach be deranged, as in dyspepsia, or 
called on to perform too much labor, the brain by 
its nervous connection with the former is deprived 
of its nervous force. If the brain labor too in- 
tently, the stomach becomes disordered from a 
corresponding nervous connection. 

Study, grief, care, anxiety, the more violent 
10* 



226 INFLUENCES OF ELECTRICITY. 

mental emotions generally, by exhausting the 
nervous force which should be employed in giving 
energy to the direct functions of life, induce de- 
rangements in those functions. 

The nervous system, thus deprived of its ener- 
gies, becomes enfeebled, and the individual pos- 
sessing this depressed condition of feeling is said 
to be nervous. 

The mourner at the grave of his friend, the lover 
who in the loss of his idol sees no prospect of hap- 
piness through the distant vista of life, by brood 
ing over their distinct objects, suffer alike from 
loss of appetite, indigestion and its relatives. 

These facts are easily explained upon the prin- 
ciple of electrical action. 

The system receives a specific amount of electric 
force, in accordance with the condition of the 
avenues described. Every physical action and 
mental emotion is aided by the action of this 
force : an excess not only exhausts its supply in 
the part exercised, but to a limited degree, in the 
whole system. Individual organs are subject to 
the operation of a corresponding law. 

Dr. Marshall Hall says : " Disease of the latent 
lobe of the cerebellum produces paralysis of the 
opposite side; disease of the medulla oblongata 
indicates paralysis of the respiratory muscles, and 
consequently, when complete, instant death." 

This disturbance of the varied functions of life, 
produced by attacks having their origin in the 
brain, is equally true in other respects as in those 
suggested by Dr. Hall. 



INFLUENCES OF ELECTRICITY. 227 

These facts may be accounted for philosophically 
and conclusively, upon the principle of electrical 
action in the human economy. 

In explaining the anatomy of the nerves, we 
have shown them connecting the brain with the 
eye; the function of the latter derives its vital 
energy from the former. 

If the brain be affected by injury at the points 
where this connection takes place, the electrical 
action of the nerves and the functions of vision 
are alike disturbed : when this action ceases en- 
tirely, amaurosis is the result, (a disease of the 
optic nerve which produces partial blindness.) 

The same remarks apply to the functions of 
hearing and smelling : if the nerves of these func- 
tions are injured between, or at their points of 
contact, the electric action is rendered feeble ; if the 
injury be permanent and of any serious extent, 
deafness will be the result of the former ; the loss 
of the sense of smell, the latter. 

Upon the principle of an electrical excess or 
deficiency in the brain and nervous system, it is 
easy to account for those local and organic affec- 
tions to which the human machine is subject. 

When we reflect that the brain is the organ 
through which the mind manifests itself, that 
electricity is one, if not the principal bond of 
union between the intellect which produces and 
the brain which manifests, it requires no stretch of 
imagination to conceive the manner in which men- 
tal labor excessively performed exhausts the system, 
and deranges its organic action and equilibrium. 



228 INFLUENCES OF ELECTRICITY. 

The perplexities of commercial life, the anxie- 
ties of relatives in sickness, excitements conse- 
quent on all great occasions, the emotions of 
fear, anger, love, or grief, are the mental avenues 
to those diseases which have their seat in an ex- 
hausted state of the electrical forces. 

The feeble bodily condition arising from the 
excessive gratification of animal propensities, may 
likewise be ascribed to the exhaustion of electric 
power. 

There are other causes, independent of those to 
which we have referred, by which the force of 
electricity in the system may be diminished, de- 
pendent on peculiar states of the grosser elements, 
as those of earth, air and water. 

"We have before observed that long-continued 
drought and heat deprive the atmosphere of its 
electrical properties. 

If a Ley den jar, charged, be placed in a dry 
atmosphere, it may retain its electricity for some 
hours, perhaps a day ; but if removed to a damp 
atmosphere, or even by placing it within the reach 
of a current of damp air, the electric fluid imme- 
diately passes off, the latter being a conductor, the 
former a non-conductor of electricity. 

The above are among the sources from which 
our systems are perpetually experiencing a reno- 
vation of electric power. 

When the atmosphere is dry, (if the drought 
has not too long continued,) and the sun careers 
through a cloudless sky, the electric fluid strength- 
ens and invigorates us ; we feel an exhilaration, 



INFLUENCES OF ELECTRICITY. 229 

an unusual flow of animal spirits ; the invalid al- 
most forgets his malady in this extra renovation 
of the powers of life. But let a wind approach from 
the east, charged with its watery particles, a natural 
conductor of the electric fluid from the earth's sur- 
face, how rapid is the change in his feelings ! The 
old standing chronic pains supervene ; the circula- 
tion becomes enfeebled ; the pulmonary organs, par- 
ticularly if previously diseased, suffer a loss of vital 
energy, that scarcely permits them to perform 
their part in the process of respiration. 

Such are some of the physical conditions fre- 
quently witnessed and painfully experienced, mys- 
teriously hidden in the arcana of nature, until 
explained on the principle of electric admixture 
with the functions of organic life. 

The rigors in the cold stages of intermittent 
and other fevers, have their origin in the diminu- 
tion of electric force. 

A current of damp air, passing over the indi- 
vidual when sitting at an open window, has, in 
some cases, so deprived the system of the electric 
fluid as to occasion paralysis. 

Damp feet, on the same principle, are at periods 
productive of nearly all diseases to which human- 
ity is subject, commencing in the nerves and ter- 
minating in inflammation of the voluntary or 
involuntary muscles, perhaps both, or in giving 
rise to what are termed nervous diseases. 

Neuralgia, tic doloreux, and rheumatism, are 
dependent on diminished electric force, for their 
origin. 



230 INFLUENCES OF ELECTKICITY. 

The arguments which have been frequently 
adduced, and as frequently ridiculed by the igno- 
rant and inattentive observer, to prove that there 
is much in nervous power of an electric nature, 
have received no inconsiderable support from the 
advancement of chemical science. 

Electricity has been proved not only an essen- 
tial in the contraction of a muscle, but an indis- 
pensable element in the production of heat. Heat 
cannot be produced without it, and the powers of 
life are dependent for their preservation on the 
maintenance of some portion of this latter vital 
element in the system : its production is the last 
function that ceases. When totally extinct, no 
means can restore animation ; the electric and the 
nervous powers have departed for ever, and the 
body, deprived of these powerful agents, quickly 
mingles with and is lost in its original source. 

Mr. Milne Edwards, in his work on Physiology, 
says: "In addition to the surmises that the nutri- 
tive equally with the muscular movements are 
carried on by the electric force, I can now add the 
fact that the hand of a remarkable personage, (of 
the name of Mottero,) now operating in Paris, 
pours forth electricity, which being, as it appears, 
modified in the human frame, cures by friction all 
diseases caused by a deficient or irregular action 
of the nerves. The remarkable power of impart- 
ing electricity, thus adapted to the human consti- 
tution, enables him to restore the equilibrium of 
disordered nervous action ; to renovate the capa- 
bility of moving to limbs completely paralyzed; 



INFLUENCES OF ELECTKICTTY. 231 

to relax contracted muscles ; to impel the blood 
in its proper direction, and to impart the strength 
that results from a sufficient supply of nervous 
energy, I should say of nervous fluid." 

The French people, fully aware that the influ- 
ence of electricity might be extended far beyond 
animal organization, have, throughout whole vine- 
yards, attached numerous conductors to the plants, 
for the purpose of increasing the process of vege- 
tation and invigorating the grape-vines. 

Dr. "Willson Philip has recently proved that 
the circulation in the smaller capillary tubes may 
continue some hours after apparent death, and 
that their current in life is not in exact unison 
with the pulsations of the heart ; so that the ordi- 
nary theory of the circulation of the blood is 
inadequate to its complete explanation. 

Brydone says: "If you cause water to trickle 
through a small capillary tube, the moment you 
electrify the tube the water runs in a fall stream." 
Electricity, he adds, " must be considered the great 
vivifying principle of nature by which she carries 
on most of her operations. It is the most subtle 
and active of all fluids. It is a kind of soul which 
pervades and quickens every part of nature" 

When electricity finds its equilibrium on the 
face of nature, when it pervades equally the air 
and the earth, all is calm and quiet; but if that 
equilibrium is destroyed, consequences the most 
dreadful ensue until it is restored : hence the nat- 
ural elemental convulsions previously alluded to 
in this work. 



232 INFLUENCES OF ELECTRICITY. 

But it is not in the elements alone that the de- 
rangement takes place by these electrical changes : 
the animal and vegetable worlds experience their 
effects. 

In the former, persons with a weak nervous 
system are exalted or depressed, according to the 
direction of the winds. 

The sirocco in the south of Europe, the kam- 
sin of Asia, the southeast wind of Great Britain, 
are attended in the human frame by a sense of 
lassitude, of indescribable oppression, for which no 
mere change of temperature will account, It is 
to the electrical changes superinduced that we 
must look for the origin of these feelings. 

During the continuance of these winds, the at- 
mosphere is nearly deprived of its electricity, and 
the nervous system, at the same time, of its energy. 

In damp weather, when every rain-drop, in de- 
scending, and every plant or other object on the 
earth, quickly absorbs the electric fluid, every per- 
son in ill health must be aware of the altered state 
of his feelings: his spirits are dejected, the various 
functions of life, among them particularly that of 
digestion, are feebly performed; a state of com- 
plete morbid irritability ensues, which nothing but 
a clear north wind, which awakes the slumbers and 
torpor of electrcity, calls it into vivid action, re- 
stores functional energy, and enlivens the whole 
of animated nature, will subdue. 

Who has not felt an excess of languor and lassi 
tude during the atmospheric combination of a 
moist easterly wind and a warm sun in our own 



INFLUENCES OF ELECTKICITY. 233 

city, (New- York,) when compared with the same 
temperature in portions of our country more ele- 
vated or farther removed from the returning eva- 
porations of the ocean ? 

In clear, frosty weather, on the contrary, the 
spirits are greatly elevated : there is a buoyancy 
in the system for which we can scarcely account ; 
an excess of electricity which forces us to seek new 
objects on which to expend our nervous and mus- 
cular powers ; an excess of vitality almost burden- 
some to its possessor. 

" It is well known," says Brydone, in his remarks 
on electricity during a visit to Mount Etna, " that 
there have been instances of the human body be- 
coming electric without the mediation of any elec- 
tric substance, and even emitting sparks of fire 
with a disagreeable sensation, and even an extreme 
degree of nervous sensibility. 

"About seven or eight years since, a lady in 
Switzerland was effected in this manner, but I was 
unable to learn all the particulars of her case ; how- 
ever, several Swiss gentlemen have confirmed to 
me the truth of the story. 

"She was uncommonly susceptible of every 
atmospherical change ; had her electrical feelings 
strongest in a clear day, or during the passage of 
the thunder clouds, when the air is known to be 
replete with electric fluid. 

" Two gentlemen of Geneva had a shorter expe- 
rience of the same sort of complaint, though still 
in a much superior degree. Professor Saussure 
and young Mr. Jalabert, when travelling over one 



234 INFLUENCES OF ELECTKICITY. 

of the high. Alps, found their bodies so full of elec- 
trical fire, that spontaneous flashes darted from 
their fingers with a crackling noise, and the same 
kind of sensation as when electrified by art. 

" It seems pretty evident, I think, that these 
feelings were owing to the bodies being possessed 
of too great a share of electric fire. 

" This is a very uncommon case, but I do not 
think it at all improbable that many of our inva- 
lids, particularly the hypochondriac people, and 
those we call malades imaginai?-es, owe their dis- 
agreeable feelings to the opposite cause, or the 
bodies being possessed of too small a quantity of 
this fire ; for we find that a diminution of it in the 
air seldom fails to increase these feelings, and vice 
versa." 

The influences of electricity upon the function 
of respiration have but recently been imperfectly 
acknowledged. That the blood is vitalized by the 
reception of oxygen through the air-cells of the 
lungs by some peculiar process, experiment will 
not permit us to doubt ; but we much question the 
principle upon which it has been stated to act. 

That great chemist, Sir Humphrey Davy, says, 
from actual experiment, he is convinced that the 
oxygen obtained from the atmosphere which we 
inspire, owes its elasticity to electricity ; that it is 
always, in a normal state, combined with the latter ; 
that air which has lost its elasticity is unfit either 
to support animal life or produce combustion, and, 
conseqently. animal heat. 

If the chemical philosopher is correct, and we 



INFLUENCES OF ELECTKICITY. 235 

doubt not that he is, oxygen, so far from being the 
agent of vitality, the producer of arterialized blood, 
is only the medium through which another and less 
ponderous element is received as the vitalizing 
principle, and that element is electricity. 

The influence of electricity on the nerves of the 
stomach was strikingly illustrated by Dr. Philip, 
but strongly doubted by the skeptics in electrical 
force, until it was re-proved by the experiments of 
that gentleman, in connection with Mr. Brodie, be- 
fore the members of the Eoyal Institution in Lon- 
don. 

The eighth pair of nerves was separated, (formed 
by the pneumogastric, the glosso -pharyngeal, and 
the spinal accessory, see nerves, page 118,) and the 
secretion of the gastric juice was directly sus- 
pended. 

A voltaic current of electricity was passed 
through the divided portion of the nerve next the 
stomach, when the secretion was immediately re- 
stored, as before the division. 

^From the result of this experiment, Dr. Philip 
contends that, by the mechanical application of the 
electric current, the stomach when otherwise in- 
active, and the lungs when in a state of torpor, 
may be excited into healthy and vigorous action. 

Dr. Philip's experiment establishes two impor- 
tant principles connected with the theory we have 
essayed to establish : 

First, that the functions of the stomach are under 
the influence of a power received through the 
nerves with which it is connected ; second, that such 



236 INFLUENCES OF ELECTEICITY. 

power is either electricity, or an agent, the office 
of which may be performed by electricity. 

When it is taken into consideration that, through 
our food and drink, we receive into the stomach 
a great amount of electric fluid, the conclusion that 
electricity does become the immediate agent in the 
production of vital power in that organ, is placed 
beyond the possibility of doubt. 

We shall close our remarks on electricity, its 
connections with and influences and actions on liv- 
ing bodies, by some interesting reports on the 
connection between electricity a ad cholera, from St. 
Petersburg in Eussia, and London in Great Brit- 
ain. 

The former report states that scientific men, from 
the outbreak and during the continuance of the 
fatal pestilence, noted the remarkable fact of the 
almost total absence of electricity from the atmo- 
sphere, and the almost total deprivation of electric 
power in those bodies which are ordinarily pos- 
sessed of it in a condensed degree. 

A magnet, for instance, of forty pounds' sustain- 
ing capacity, was found, while the disease was at 
its height, to be incapable of sustaining more than 
four or five pounds ; and it was further found that, 
as the disease abated, the magnet was gradually 
restored to its original powers. 

The London correspondence from J. C. Atkin- 
son, Esq., member of the Eoyal College of Sur- 
geons, addressed to the Editor of the Lancet, says : 

"lam desirous of directing the attention of your 
numerous scientific readers to a very interesting 



INFLUENCES OF ELECTKICTTY. 237 

phenomenon, more or less. intimately connected 
with the collapse state of cholera, which seems 
hitherto to have escaped the observation of medi- 
cal men, viz., animal electricity, or phosphores- 
cence of the human body. 

" My attention was first directed to the subject 
during the former visitation of that fearful disease 
in the metropolis. 

" It was indeed singular to notice the quantity of 
electric fluid which continually discharged itself 
on the approach of any conducting body to the 
surface of the skin of a patient laboring under the 
collapse state, more especially if the patient had 
been previously enveloped in blankets : streams of 
electricity, many of them averaging one inch and a 
half in length, could readily be educted by the 
knuckle of the hand when directed to any part of 
the body ; and these appeared, in color, effect, crack- 
ling noise, and luminous character, similar to that 
which we are all accustomed to observe when 
touching a Ley den jar.* I may remark the coin- 
cidence, that simultaneously with the heat of the 
body passing off, the electricity was evolved. And 
I am therefore led to ask the question, Are not 
heat, electric and galvanic fluids, one and the 
same thing ? Does not the fact of the passing off 



* The symptoms observed by Mr. Atkinson will not tend to 
clear the mist which obscures the medical world in relation to 
the causes of cholera. With us it has been most prevalent and 
fatal in a season of great drought, when the atmosphere has 
been deprived of its electricity. 



238 INFLUENCES OF ELECTKICITY. 

of both imponderable substances, at one and the 
same time, strengthen this conclusion ? 

" In the treatment of cholera, all are agreed that 
non-conducting substances on the surface of the 
skin aid essentially in the cure ; and during the 
disturbed state of the atmosphere, for the purpose 
of retaining the electricity continually eliminating 
in the system, we are told to wear woollen band- 
ages, flannel, and gutta percha soles, so as to insu- 
late as much as possible the body, to prevent the 
heat — the electric fluid — from passing off." 



CHAPTEE XV. 

Opinions of Eminent Ittetucal fflm on 32lectrictt£ 
anlr its Effects $u ©tsease. 

Dr. Tuson, of London— The late John Abernethy— Professor Wisgrill, of 
Vienna— Braithwaite's Retrospect— Cases by Eminent Physicians in Europe 
— Aphonia, or Loss of Voice — Theodore Mandurick— Palsy, by Dr. Neligan 
— Hemiplegia, or Palsy of One Side, from the Head downwards, by M. 
Bemond — Paraplegia, or Palsy across the Body, by Dr. Constantine James 
— Tinnitus Aurium, or Ringing in the Ears, by Dr. Heoring — Dr. Finella on 
Deafness— Neuralgia, by Magendie— Sciatica, by Dr. E. Hermel— Asthma, 
Chronic Difficulty of Breathing, Anosmia, or Loss of .Smell, and Amau- 
rosis, by Dr. Wilson Philip— Chorea, (St. Vitus* Dance,) Facial Paralysis, 
(Palsy of the Face,) by Dr. Golding Bird— Tetanus, (Universal Cramp,) 
by Surgeon Hailey— Rheumatic and Local Palsy, by T. J. Vallance— Con- 
stipation, by Dr. W. Cumming — Removal of a Nasvus, or Mother's Mark, 
from a Child, by J. Hilton, Esq., Guy's Hospital — Suspended Animation, 
Narcotism, Russell and Johnson, King's College Hospital, London — Mr. 
Corfe, Middlesex Hospital— S. P. James, Esq.— Dr. William Bird— Green- 
wich Avenue Calamity— Dr. Vanderpool. 

Among those attached to old systems, electricity 
may and will meet with opponents: the system of 
Galileo in ancient times, and of the great Harvey 
at a much more modern period, experienced a 
bitterness of hostility which has few equals in the 
history of science. 

In the time of the latter, the rabbis of medicine, 
like those of religion in Judea, who rejected the 
new and mild doctrine of the first great Teacher of 
Christianity, scorned the new lights which were 
offered them, and scoffed at and insulted its dis- 
ciples. 



240 EFFECTS OF ELECTEICITY ON" DISEASE. 

Time, however, has insured its triumph, as it 
will assuredly that of medical electricity. 

Many, if not all, the supposed failures in elec- 
tricity, arise from errors committed in its applica- 
tion: the application of electricity is a peculiar 
art, the result of long practice and minute obser- 
vation ; its indiscriminate use, or imperfect appli- 
cation, will in many cases produce more evil than 
benefit. 

In some cases ample diffusion will be necessary ; 
in others, the utmost concentration of power. The 
electrician who would succeed in his practice, must 
understand anatomy so far as the course of the 
nerves and muscles is concerned; his diagnosis 
must be equally correct with that of the general 
physician; his judgment must be accurate as to 
time and position : in other words, he must know 
ivhen and where to apply the electric current ; he 
must be able to graduate the power of the shock 
to the nervous capabilities of his patient, lest by 
suddenly and highly exciting a weak nervous sys- 
tem, he may add to its present or cause a lasting 
debility; he must be endued with the spirit of 
perseverance, and permit no seeming initiatory 
disappointments to shake his faith in ultimate and 
permanent beneficial results. 

Dr. Tuson, of London, F.E.S., says: ''Electro- 
galvanism may be considered as a stimulant to the 
nervous system, a stimulant to the most minute 
fTbrillse, to the most delicate nervous texture, . and 
likewise to the neurilema, or sheath of the nerves ; 
promoting speedy absorption so that should the 



EFFECTS OF ELECTKICITY ON DISEASE. 241 

sheath, or even investing membrane of any ner- 
vous fibre be thickened or enlarged, by extravasa- 
tion or any other means, by stimulating the nerves, 
promoting absorption, and removing the obstruc- 
tion, the part will assume a healthy action. In 
rheumatism, electro-galvanism will often prove of 
the greatest benefit. 

" Electro-galvanism is an agent which produces 
absorption quicker than any medical means which 
we are acquainted with ; this can be clearly proved 
by its application to indolent tumors, as it very 
frequently causes them to be absorbed most readily. 
After all other means have failed, electro-galvan- 
ism will completely cure some indolent tumors." 

That distinguished surgeon, the late John Aber- 
neihy, said, " Electricity is a part of surgical practice 
that may be considered unique; all other means 
operate on the surface, but electricity will pervade 
the very centre of the body. It may be so man- 
aged as to be made to pervade a tumor in the 
very centre of the abdomen. It is a species of stim- 
ulation, and may be applied in various degrees of 
force." 

Professor Wisgrill, of Vienna, says : " A revolu- 
tion has now taken place in favor of electricity, 
which, after its wide celebrity at the commence- 
ment of the present century, had fallen into disuse, 
not from the inefncacy of the means, but from 
the mode in which they were employed." 

" Electro-magnetic apparatus ought now to be in 
the possession of every surgeon." — Braiihwaiie } s 
Retrospect. 

11 



242 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 

The following cases of disease, differing in their 
form and symptoms, attended by the most eminent 
physicians in Europe, many of them of the most 
obstinate character, but all, after science and art 
had exerted their utmost powers and ransacked 
the pharmacopoeias for fresh medical combinations, 
yielding to the effects of electricity, are offered as 
additional testimony in behalf of a remedial agent 
in nervous disease, which will one day become as 
universal as it is efficacious. 

Aphonia. — Hooper defines this disease to be a 
suspension of the voice without syncope or coma, 
and divides it into three classes : 

First, Aphonia gutturalis, when proceeding from 
a tumor about the fauces or glottis. 

Second, Aphonia trachealis, when arising from a 
diseased condition of the trachea or windpipe. 

Third, Aphonia atonica, when proceeding from 
paralysis or want of nervous energy. A case of 
the latter, as described in the London Lancet, May 
27th, 1843, was successfully treated by electricity. 

Theodore Mandurick, a Dalmatian, twenty -four 
years of age, of sanguine temperament and robust 
constitution, and who had usually enjoyed good 
health, killed one of his countrymen in a quarrel, 
for which offense he was incarcerated in the prison 
at Icardona. 

Three days subsequent to his imprisonment, he 
was attacked with a violent fit of epilepsy, followed 
by entire loss of voice ; to restore which local, ex- 
ternal, and general bleedings, antiphlogistic mea- 
sures of all kinds, were resorted to without effect. 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 243 

In a few months he was removed to the central 
prison of Zara, where he was examined by the 
medical staff. 

The tongue was somewhat enlarged, preternatur- 
ally reddened, though dry, and the blood-vessels 
around its base were much distended. The sense 
of taste was uninjured, but the movements of the 
tongue and larynx were performed with difficulty. 

Leeches were now applied to the sides of the 
tongue, tartarized antimony, in both large and 
small doses, and drastic purgatives were employed, 
and a tartar emetic plaster was applied over the 
larynx* but all these means failed to restore a 
healthy action to the parts adjacent, and Mandu- 
rick was still compelled to keep his mouth partially 
open to maintain respiration, which function could 
only be performed by short and difficult inspira- 
tions. 

About sixteen months subsequent to the attack, 
the voltaic pile was thought of, and a battery of 
fifty pair of plates employed. 

On the first day two hundred shocks were given, 
and on the second three, but no perceptible effect 
followed. Two days were suffered to elapse, and a 
battery of seventy pair plates was then used, with 
which about three hundred shocks were given. 
The patient was found acutely sensitive to the 
action of electricity, and a lapse of five days was 
permitted to intervene before the fourth applica- 
tion, which consisted of four hundred shocks with 
the latter named instrument. Whether these were 
administered too precipitately, or whether his sys- 



244 EFFECTS OF ELECTEICITY ON DISEASE. 

tern had become more excitable by galvanism, the 
patient, after the last application, became much 
agitated, and subsequently fainted for a short time. 
Next day he suffered intense headache ; his face 
was flushed, his eyes were lustrous, his pulse was 
full and strong, from which state he was relieved 
by bleeding ; but he now for the first time gave 
utterance to hoarse sounds. After six more days, 
the battery of fifty pairs was again employed, and 
three hundred shocks given. The same treatment 
was repeated every two or three days, and then, at 
similar intervals, four hundred shocks were given 
with the seventy pair battery. The voice mean- 
while, and the motor power of the tongue and 
larynx, gradually returned to their normal condi- 
tion, and after the twelfth application the patient 
completely recovered. 

The deduction drawn by the surgeon who re- 
ported the case is, that no nervous affection what- 
ever should be regarded as incurable until electri- 
city had in some form been tried and failed. 

Dr. jNeligan has had much experience in the 
use of electricity, in cases of palsy ; and among 
other cases in which he has found it effectual, he 
cites the following : 

One of almost complete palsy of the fore arm, 
succeeding to painter's colic. "When the colic 
pains were removed and the bowels opened, mag- 
neto-electricity was applied. Though previously 
he could not stir his hands, they immediately closed 
upon the conductor. In the course of four weeks 
he was entirely restored with this agent. 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 245 

A sailor, also under his treatment, had expe- 
rienced a paralysis of the shoulder, by sleeping, 
for nights together, in wet clothes on deck. His 
right arm first began to feel heavy and numb ; it 
pained him to stir it, and he gradually lost all 
power over it. Blisters and moxas proved of no 
advantage. Electro-magnetism was resorted to 
on the 20th of December, and by the 30th, he 
could use his arm nearly as well as ever. (See 
Monthly Journal of Med. Science, April, 1846, 
p. 225.) 

Hemiplegia, or palsy of one side, from the head 
downwards. — A case of this disease, of considera- 
ble importance, is reported in the Revue Med., 
Nov., 1834, of Madame B., where the hemiplegia 
was the result of apoplexy. Speech difficult, 
taste and hearing impaired, saliva escaping from 
the mouth, constipation obstinate, cramps in the 
paralyzed limb frequent. At length, oedema 
throughout the left side. From the first applica- 
tion of electricity Madame B. was enabled to stand, 
to stoop, and rise again. On the second day the 
oedema diminished, and perspiration was felt upon 
the left side ; the hearing was improved, and her 
features became more regular. With twenty ap- 
plications she had quite recovered, when she left 
Bordeaux; and M. Bermond, the operator, ex- 
presses it as his opinion, that two weeks longer 
would have removed every remaining trace of the 
disease. 

Paraplegia, or palsy across the body. — Dr. Oon- 
stantine James gives the details of an extreme case 



246 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 

of paraplegia, in the Gazette Medicate de Paris, 
of 1848, in which electricity proved entirely suc- 
cessful. The patient was a girl of seventeen, who 
was first injured by falling at full length while 
walking. From this she suffered pain in the 
knees, and subsequently weakness. The usual 
remedies, local and general, were resorted to with- 
out relief; she was then placed under the water 
treatment at Neris, where she remained six months. 
From this complete paraplegia followed, and on 
her return to Paris the most powerful treatment 
was resorted to, but with little benefit. After 
three years from the first accident, electro-mag- 
netism was applied. The lower extremities were 
now much wasted away, and without assistance 
she could not rise from the bed. The treatment 
was commenced with much care, being evidently 
resorted to as an experiment. Twenty operations 
enabled the patient to take some steps with the 
aid of a cane. The treatment was wholly sus- 
pended for a time, yet in the course of four 
months she was entirely restored. She has since 
married, and remains perfectly well. 

Tinnitus Aurium, or ringing in the ears, which 
is often the precursor to deafness, is also speedily 
cured by electricity. Dr. Hoering cured a patient 
thus afflicted after recovering from typhus fever, 
who had been under other treatment for three 
months, without relief; twenty -two applications 
only being required for a complete cure. 

Mr. M. Hoering reports a case in the Encyclop. des 
/Sc. Med., June, 1847, in which a man sixty years 



EFFECTS OF ELECTEICITY ON DISEASE. 247 

old was cured of deafness of a year's standing, by 
eighteen applications of electricity. 

Dr. Finella has reported, to the Scientific Con- 
gress of Genoa, several cases of deafness cured 
by him with electricity. One was of a sexagena- 
rian, who in his youth suffered from atorrhoea, 
afterward night blindness, and finally deafness. 
From the first operation a slight discharge from 
the ear took place. The same effect followed the 
second operation, with a slight improvement in 
hearing. On the third, both hearing and sight 
were improved. With twelve operations the cure 
became permanent. Other similar cases were 
treated with similar results. (See Annali Universi 
di Medicina, Dec, 1846.) 

Another had become deaf from inflammation 
of the ear, following rheumatism, and was restored 
by eleven operations. 

Neuralgia. — This singular complaint is quite 
common. It is nothing more nor less than a con- 
traction of the nerves proceeding from cold. Be- 
sides being excessively painful, it resists ordinary 
remedies ; the use of leeches and the lance, pills 
and poultices, seem of slight avail. Some have 
given to it, when in the facial nerves, the name of 
tic doloreux, and when in the sciatic the name 
sciatica. Others have represented the condition 
of pain or uneasiness, as allied to neuralgia, in 
whatever part. 

"We quote the following from the Medical Ga- 
zette, the Medico-Chirurg. Eeview, July, 1841 : 

M. Thelin had been subject to frequent attacks 



248 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY OK DISEASE. 

of most severe neuralgia, affecting the superior 
maxillary nerve of the left side, when he first 
consulted M. Magendie. The pain in the gums, 
lips, cheek, and ala nasi, was insupportable. The 
patient could scarcely utter a word, and as for 
performing mastication it was impossible. All 
methods of treatment had been tried in vain. But 
by having many of his teeth extracted, and being 
leeched and blistered and physicked for months 
and months at a time, his constitution had suffered 
severely. He consulted M. Magendie on the 5th of 
March, 1838. At one sitting of a few moments the 
pain was chasse. Since that period, whenever the 
neuralgia returned, he repaired to M. Magendie, 
and always left him cured of his sufferings. It is 
now several months since he had an attack. 

M. James relates a number of instructive cases 
of neuralgic affections of the nerves, which oc- 
curred chiefly in the practice of M. Magendie, who 
is the great advocate of this mode of treating 
neuralgia, which were relieved by the use of 
electricity. (See Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Jour- 
nal, July, 1841.) 

Sciatica, or nervous disease of the nerve passing 
down the thigh and leg. — This form of neuralgia, 
so difficult to treat with the usual remedies, yields 
at once to the use of electricity. Of the many 
cases treated by Dr. E. Hernial, published in the 
Annates Medico- Psychologiques, March, 1844, and 
noticed in the London and Edinburgh Monthly 
Journal of Medical Science, June, 1844, we extract 
the following: : 



EFFECTS OF ELECTKICITY ON DISEASE. 249 

" A woman, at the Hotel Dieu, aged 70 years, 
laboring under sciatica of a very aggravated 
character of six months' standing. One applica 
tion caused copious sweatings and effected a cure. 

"A man with sciatica of four months' standing 
was the subject of a single application. It is re- 
ferred to as having produced a copious sweat. 

"A butcher's boy at Hotel Dieu, with double 
sciatica and paralysis, of five weeks' standing. 
The first application put the pain to an end, and 
was followed by involuntary discharge of urine 
during the night. Several applications were af- 
terwards made, and in thirteen days he was cured, 
and in twenty-one days dismissed." 

Asthma. — The observations of numerous practi- 
tioners combine in placing electricity among the 
first and most efficient remedies ever employed in 
this distressing disease. 

Of the many cases referred to by Charming, 
in his notes of cures effected by Dr. Wilson 
Philip, we extract the following : 

"1st. A blacksmith, aged 50, with severe habit- 
ual asthma of seven months' standing. Cough 
troublesome, with thick yellowish expectoration. 
After three applications of galvanism, for about 
ten minutes each time, he declared himself well, 
and resumed work. Several weeks later the dis- 
ease was renewed by intoxication, and he was 
again relieved with equal facility. During ten 
months several slighter attacks occurred, follow- 
ing exposure, which were immediately relieved in 
the same manner. 
11* 



250 EFFECTS OF ELECTEIC1TY ON DISEASE. 

"2d. A governess, aged 28, with asthma of 
four years' standing. The breathing was rendered 
easy in a few minutes by galvanism, and after the 
second application, continued so. Three weeks 
later, she experienced some return of dyspnoea, 
which was relieved by a blister, which had been 
previously tried with slight effect. During several 
months after she remained well. 

"3d. A female domestic, aged 30, with asthma 
of two months' standing. She was relieved in a 
few minutes, and after a few applications remained 
well for several weeks. 

a 4th. A laborer, formerly a soldier, aged 68. 
He was unable to walk, save at a slow pace, and 
sometimes had been obliged wholly to abandon 
work. During his most severe attack, he has been 
relieved in a few minutes by galvanism, and after 
three weeks of daily applications, of ten minutes 
each, the relief became permanent. A sense of 
sinking in the stomach, in this as the previous case, 
after the application of electricity, came on, (prob- 
ably from the stimulation of the organ,) which 
was removed by carbonate of iron. After a lapse 
of two years, this patient had experienced no 
return. 

"5th. A female of domestic habits, aged 40, 
with asthma of five years' standing. The first ap- 
plication of galvanism gave great relief, but this 
proved unequal in subsequent administrations. 
Her attendance was irregular, and her consump- 
tion of malt liquor excessive. Her breathing and 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 251 

digestion were both, improved, though the former 
continued oppressed." 

The cures effected by Dr. Wilson Philip, as 
above stated, are of so interesting a character to 
the asthmatic invalid, that we have given them 
more space in our pages than we designed. 

Anosmia (loss of the sense of smell ;) Amaurosis, 
(partial loss of sight.) — The Dublin Quarterly 
Journal of Medical Science, for 1847, states that 
many cases of the above disease have been en- 
tirely cured by electricity, when all other remedial 
means had failed ; and that many cases of most 
inveterate amaurosis, (a disease of the optic nerve,) 
which had resisted all the efforts of surgery and 
medicine, as blisters, moxas, nux vomica, bella- 
donna, &c, at length yielded to the effects of elec- 
tricity. 

The principal physician in one of our charitable 
medical institutions in this city, (New- York,) whose 
means of observation are most extensive, stated 
to us, a few days since, that in his opinion, amau- 
rosis could be cured by no other means than by 
the application of electricity, and that if the latter 
were judiciously applied it invariably restored the 
sight. 

Dr. Q-olding Bird, presiding physician to the cele- 
brated medical institution known as Guy's Hospi- 
tal, London^ says: " Electricity has by no means 
been fairly treated as a therapeutical agent, for it 
has either been exclusively referred to when all 
other remedies have failed — in fact, often exclu- 
sively, or nearly so, in hopeless cases — or its admin- 



252 EFFECTS OF ELECTEICITY ON DISEASE. 

istration has been carelessly directed, and the man- 
date, ' Let the patient be electrified,' merely given 
without reference to the manner, form, or mode of 
the remedy being for an instant taken into consid- 
eration. 

"Conscientiously convinced that the agent in 
question is a no less energetic than a valuable 
remedy in the treatment of disease, I feel most 
anxious to press its employment upon the practical 
physician, and to urge him to have recourse to it 
as a rational but fallible remedy, and not to regard 
it as one either expected or capable of effecting 
impossibilities. I again say, I shall advance no- 
thing but what has been repeatedly tested under 
my own observation, and I hope to make out a 
strong case in favor of this long-neglected rem- 
edy." 

Chorea, St. Vitus' Dance. — This disease is attrib- 
uted to the relaxation of the muscles ; oftentimes 
it arises from extreme excitability of the nervous 
system. 

From the report made at Gruy's Hospital, and 
published in the Medical Gazette, June 18th, 1847, 
p. 1065, we quote the following : 

A little girl of eight years was admitted Novem- 
ber 2d, with chorea, which had supervened upon 
rheumatism, and with which she had been afflicted 
for two weeks. "Her existing symptoms were 
continual involuntary jactitation of the legs and 
arms, with continual contractions of the muscles 
of the face. She complained of stiffness in the 
neck, and spoke with extreme difficulty. She 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 253 

took vinum ferri and sulphate of zinc, for some 
time ; but getting no better, electricity was or- 
dered, December 2d ; December 18th she left the 
hospital quite free from all traces of chorea." 

The next case was that of a boy twelve years 
old, with chorea of ten months' standing, which 
appeared to have arisen from the irritation of a 
tape- worm. Purgatives and sulphate of zinc were 
employed for two months without benefit. Jan- 
uary 6th, Dr. Bird notes the symptoms as follows : 
" Involuntary movement of almost every muscle, 
so that he had considerable difficulty in walking, 
and was quite unable to support himself upon one 
leg. His arms were in constant motion, and he 
had so little control over his fingers that he could 
not retain any thing in his grasp, even for an in- 
stant ; the muscles of his throat were also in a 
state of constant involuntary motion, so that his 
articulation was imperfect, and his words were 
frequently unintelligible ; his head was constantly 
moving, with his neck alternately thrust forward 
and retracted in a jerking manner." 

January 9th, much improved. Involuntary 
movements of the legs and arms much less. 13th, 
rapidly convalescing. Feb. 9th, presented well. 

From thirty-six cases ot this disease contained 
in one report, dependent on various causes, twenty- 
nine of which were cured by electricity, when all 
other treatment had proved ineffectual, we have 
only quoted two. 

We may add, from information derived from 
the same source, that twenty-five were relieved 



254 EFFECTS OF ELECTEICITY ON DISEASE. 

and one left the hospital from alarm, and conse- 
quently had no chance of relief. 

" The results of my trials of electricity in the cure 
and relief of chorea," (the dance of St. Vitus,) con- 
cludes Dr. Bird, "may thus be deemed very satis- 
factory. 

"I am aware that others have not met with the 
same success. This fact is easily accounted for : 
they have merely sought the aid of r emedy in 
cases which obstinately resisted all other means, 
instead of using it as a primary remedy. 

" Of all the remedies I have hitherto used, except 
perhaps the sulphate of zinc, electricity seems 
most successful in chorea, and I have invariably 
applied it whenever I possibly could do so, since 
I first saw it employed by my friend and colleague, 
Dr. Addison, who I believe first suggested its use 
in this disease, paralysis, rheumatism chronic and 
acute, and many cases of epilepsy." 

Facial Paralysis, or palsy of the face. — Dr. Bird 
cites several cases of this kind, (see Medical Ga- 
zette, August 6th, 1847,) from which the following 
are selected : "A barrister, in full and influential 
practice, became the subject of paralysis of the 
portio dura on the left side, from exposing the 
cheek to a current of air from a broken window 
in a crowded court. He applied to me in a week 
or two afterwards ; the paralysis continuing, and 
the distortion of the face being hideous. As his 
general health was excellent, I ordered him to 
apply currents from the electro-magnetic machine, 



EFFECTS OF ELECTBICTTY O^ DISEASE. 255 

which was done, and in a fortnight all distortion 
vanished. 

" An instance lately occurred to me in the person 
of a clergyman, who had suffered from paralysis 
of the seventh pair of nerves a dozen years pre- 
viously, and the paralysis had never completely 
disappeared. The face when I saw him was not 
symmetrical, the saliva often flowed from the 
corner of the mouth, and his intonation was im- 
paired. He set sedulously to work with the electro- 
magnetic current, and I saw him some months 
afterwards entirely restored." 

A case of Idiopathic Tetanus treated by Galvan- 
ism. By H. Hailey, Esq., Newport, Pagnell. — 
In this case the patient was a boy twelve years 
old, in whom the exciting cause of the attack 
appeared to be fcas prolonged use of a cold bath, 
after walking rapidly in a very hot day. On the 
14th of July, three days after the attack, when 
Mr. Hailey saw him, the symptoms were extremely 
well marked, and the patient's sufferings very 
severe. He was treated by the exhibition of active 
cathartics, large doses of opium, sinapisms to the 
spine, stimula enemata, &c, and the administra- 
tion of brandy and beef tea was not omitted, but 
up to the 1 7th without any improvement. Upon 
this day, (Mr. Hailey tells us,) I administered sev- 
eral rather strong shocks from an electro-galvanic 
apparatus, first along the spine, then over the 
masseter muscles, and then in the course of the 
great sciatic nerves. This appeared to cause great 
pain through the whole system, and at first brought 



256 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 

on the convulsions much stronger. The opium 
was discontinued altogether. In the course of a 
few hours he appeared more calm, took a mixture 
of beef tea and brandy, and the bowels not being 
acted upon, in the evening I prescribed another 
enema of castor oil and turpentine. 

18th. — Has passed a better night ; convulsions 
less frequent ; has passed more urine. Bowels 
relieved. The galvanism was again administered, 
and in giving a shock in the course of the great 
sciatic nerve, he moved the right leg, and after- 
wards said he could for the first time feel it. A 
short time after its administration to-day, to the 
surprise of his friends, he got up in bed and asked 
for something to eat, but before it could be pro- 
cured he fell back as rigid as heretofore. I ordered 
the abdomen and legs to be again well rubbed, a 
blister over each masseter muscle, and on each 
side of the spine over the region of the cervical 
plexus. 

19th. — Has slept better. Convulsions less fre- 
quent ; has taken more nourishment. Pulse small, 
feeble, 120 ; bowels relieved. The blisters having 
risen, I applied galvanism over each masseter 
muscle, and over the blisters on the spinal column, 
ordered the blisters to be kept open, and brandy, 
gruel, beef tea or port wine, to be administered 
when an opportunity occurred, and a blister to be 
applied over the loins. 

20th. — He passed a better night, the paroxysms 
having occurred only twice during that period. 
Can open his mouth wider, and has eaten a small 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 257 

piece of pudding. Bowels constipated. Galvan- 
ism to be applied over the same parts as yesterday, 
and, in addition, on the blisters in the lumbar 
region. 

21st. — Has passed a good night, not having had 
more than two convulsive fits since yesterday 
morning. Can raise his legs and slightly move 
his back ; can open his mouth wider. Bowels 
constipated and still very hard. Has masticated 
a little chicken. Ordered him ol. ricini Jss. to be 
taken directly, and quin. sulph. gr. ij. to be put 
upon the tongue every four hours, and galvanism 
to be applied over the same parts as yesterday. 

22d. — Continues improving. To continue the 
same treatment as yesterday. 

23d. — Much better. The bowels have acted spon- 
taneously. Has slept well, and had but one con- 
vulsive fit in the course of the night. Can masti- 
cate his food. Ordered him out of bed for two 
hours, and continued medicine and galvanism as 
before. 

25th. — Much better ; can stand on his legs with 
a little support. Continue medicine and galvanism. 

27th. — Much better ; bowels softer. Pulse be- 
tween 80 and 90, and stronger. Bowels continue 
to act without the aid of medicine. Ordered him 
to continue galvanism, and take tonic mixture of 
sulphate of iron and quinine. 

30th. — Has been out for a ride. Appetite very 
good ; can masticate his food well. Has had no 
convulsive fits for the last two days ; pulse 80, 
and strong. 



258 EFFECTS OF ELECTKICTTY OX DISEASE. 

August 7th. — Is able to walk about as usual, 
■with the exception of complaining of great weak- 
ness of the legs and soreness of the feet ; has dis- 
continued all medicine. From this time he daily 
improved, having no return of the convulsions, 
and by September 1st was able to follow his usual 
avocations. 

The chief interest in the case consists in the 
support which it affords to the humoral view of 
the pathology of tetanus, put forward by Dr. 
Todd in the Lumleian Lectures, published in the 
Medical Gazette last year, and in the influence of 
galvanism in reducing the tonic convulsions. As 
in the many other cases of idiopathic tetanus, the 
disease seemed to originate in exposure to cold and 
a check to perspiration — causes very favorable to 
the depravation of the blood. The great exertions 
which the patient made in walking would, no 
doubt, largely contribute to determine the influ- 
ence of any morbid matter accumulating in his 
blood, upon the muscular and nervous systems. 

The application of galvanism, a mode of treat- 
ment suggested some years ago, by Professor 
Matteucci of Pisa, seemed to have a very beneficial 
influence. It was administered on the seventh day 
of the attack, when the disease was quite at its 
height. Immediately after its application the 
symptoms began to abate, and the rigidity of the 
muscles and the convulsive attacks diminished 
steadily each succeeding day ; and it is worthy of 
notice, that simultaneously with the application of 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 259 

galvanism, all opiate medicines were discontinued, 
—Med. Gazette, Feb. 22, 1850, p. 824. 

From the London Medical Times, ISToy. 15, 1851, 
p. 509, we select the following cases of rheumatic 
and local paralysis, treated by T. J. Vallance, 
Jun., Esq., by galvanism: — Alfred Cook, aged 26, 
a gardener, was attacked on the 4th of July, 1851, 
with acute rheumatic fever. He was treated in 
the usual manner, and was confined to his bed 
about a fortnight, suffering much in the muscles 
of his extremities and back. After he was able to 
leave his bed, he had great pain in his shoulders, 
wrists and loins, increased by the slightest motion, 
so that he was incapable of dressing or feeding 
himself. He continued in this condition up to the 
29th of August, (nearly nine weeks,) during which 
period he was treated by tonics, occasional doses 
of Dover's powder, and turpentine frictions ; these 
however had no apparent result. On the 29th I 
found his arms hanging useless by his side ; the 
right was somewhat the worst; it felt cold, the 
skin tense and hard, and the muscles much atro- 
phied; the hand he was unable to close. The 
metacarpal joint of the index-finger was much 
swollen ; it felt hard, and it was very painful on 
pressure, or on any attempt to bend it. Thinking 
this a fair case for the application of galvanism, I 
resolved to try the battery, and accordingly passed 
a current from one hand to the other. The first 
effect produced was considerable faintness ; the man 
however quickly rallied, and ten minutes having 
elapsed, I found he could close his hand perfectly, 



260 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 

that the swelling was considerably diminished, 
and that all pain was- gone. The same evening he 
undressed himself without assistance. 

Aug. 30th. — Arms slightly painful on motion. 
The current was again passed with marked benefit. 

Aug. 31st. — A good deal of pain in hip and 
knee, increased by movement. 

Sept. 3d.' — Slight returns of pain and immo- 
bility in the upper extremities, speedily removed 
by the passage of a current. On the 11th, the 
man returned to his work. 

Case 2d. — Edward Conner, aged 60, a laborer, 
strong habit of body, has been prevented follow- 
ing his employment by rheumatism for three 
months ; first seen by me August 30th, when he 
complained of violent pain in the shoulders and 
neck, which was so much affected that he was 
unable to turn his head ; he complained also of 
great pain in the right clavicle, on examining 
which I found a considerable amount of periosteal 
induration, forming; a large swelling near the ster- 
nal extremity. I pointed this out to my friend 
Mr. Beale, of Plaistow, and then, assisted by him, 
passed a current along the clavicle for about five 
minutes, during which time the man said he felt 
the pain leaving him, and at the end of that 
period the pain was gone. On reexamining the 
part, the swelling had disappeared, but the man is 
still unable to lift his hand to his head. 

By the application of galvanism daily, up to 
Sept. 5th, so much improvement has taken place, 
that the man says he shall go to work next week 



EFFECTS OF ELECTEICITY ON DISEASE. 261 

Case 3d.— 30th. Sept., 1851.— Sarah Whitaker, 
aged 70, states in the month of February, 1851, 
she fell from a flight of stairs, fractured two ribs 
and sprained her back, and was confined to her 
bed for seven or eight weeks afterwards, but never 
entirely recovered, having almost lost the use of 
her right shoulder and neck, so she is unable to 
turn her head ; has suffered frequently from rheu 
matism. On examination, I found her very weak 
and thin, and the muscles of the right shoulder 
much smaller than those on the opposite side; 
there was no difference, however, in temperature 
or sensibility to the touch. 

I passed an intermittent current through the 
back of the neck, which relieved the pain, and 
enabled her to turn her head. I afterwards passed 
the current from hand to hand for half an hour ; 
it did not, however, produce so powerful an effect 
on her as it does on some persons. This is easily 
accounted for by her age, as I uniformly find 
young persons more susceptible to the influence 
of galvanism than are the old ; it however con- 
siderably improved the power of motion in the 
shoulder. 

Oct. 3d. — Battery used again with good effect. 

4th. — The current repeated. 

5th. — Better; repeat the current. 

7th. — Much better; can now lift her hand to the 
back of her head, and feels better than she has 
done since her accident. The current was again 
applied, and motion improved. 

9th. — Said she had nothing to complain of. 



262 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 

On the Treatment of Constipation by Electro- Gal- 
vanism. By Dr. W. Cumming, of Edinburgh; — 
It is perhaps a bold assertion that few cases of 
constipation will resist the action of electro-gal- 
vanism ; but the number of cases of various kinds 
in which I have used it with success, leads me to 
infer that in all except those arising from or- 
ganic or mechanical causes, this agent will not 
only act as an aperient, but give such tone to the 
muscular and mucous tunics as will in time lead 
to the natural discharge of their functions. 

The use of galvanism has been too extensively 
limited to paralyzed organs. The same influence 
that will restore vigor, either entirely or partially, 
to a muscle and to a set of muscles that have lost 
their power, will obviously, under due regulation, 
impart it to those in which it is diminished ; and 
probably few will question that the muscular 
fibres or the intestinal canal have a function to 
perform not the least important of the various 
portions of that tube ; that in torpor of the bowels 
they are, particularly, partially paralyzed, and that 
therefore we might d priori expect that galvanism, 
by supplying an appropriate stimulus, first di- 
rectly, and then secondarily by its probable action 
on the sympathetic system, would have a benefi- 
cial operation. If this be true, (and if not theo- 
retically, I am satisfied that it is practically so,) 
what innumerable wretched symptoms and feel- 
ings may not be removed, to which so many of 
both sexes are victims, and which all medical prac- 
titioners have daily to contend against as the ac- 



EFFECTS OF ECECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 263 

companiments and consequence of habitual consti- 
pation.— Med. Gazette, Dec. 7, 1849, p. 972. 

Removal of a Nozvus by Platinum Wire, heated 
by a Galvanic Current, by J. Hilton Esq., F.R.S., 
at Guy's Hospital. — Mr. Hilton has been trying this 
plan of cutting and searing at the same time, upon 
a ngevus of the flat kind, situated in the front of 
the ear of a child two months old. The operation 
was performed with Cruikshank's battery and a 
very thin wire, which was first intended to tie 
around half the tumor, which was about the size 
of a crown piece. But the wire ran so easily 
through it, that the whole was completely removed, 
and the parts are now fast cicatrizing. This is 
rather a quicker measure than the ligature, and 
just as secure, since hemorrhage is so rare. — Lancet, 
Jan. 31, 1852, p. 120. 

Suspended Animation, Narcotism. — An infant a 
few months old, to whom, by mistake, some tinc- 
ture of opium had been administered, was taken 
to King's Hospital, London, almost lifeless ; respi- 
ration failed to such a degree, that for two min- 
utes she did not breathe once. Mr. Russell and 
Mr. Johnson, the resident medical officers, applied 
the electric stream directly over the medulla ob- 
longata. The first and immediate effect was to 
excite the respiration, and soon afterwards the 
whole spinal cord became affected, so that at each 
passage of the electric current the limbs were 
raised convulsively. Respiration was completely 
reestablished by these means, but the child died 



264 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 

several hours afterwards with congested lungs. 
(See Med. Gazette, Dec. 23, 1842.) 

Mr. Corfe, of the Middlesex Hospital, has related 
an instance of the good effects of electricity under 
these circumstances : A man was admitted, having 
taken an ounce and a half of laudanum on the 
preceding evening, six hours previously. "In 
the first instance I ordered the administration of 
the stomach pump, at which period, to all appear- 
ances, he was a lifeless corpse ; the pupils were con- 
tracted to a pin-hole in size, the pulse was inter- 
mitting, and not more than forty, the respirations 
convulsivelyperformed at intervals of half a minute, 
the face livid, and the extremities bluish and cold. 
After the stomach had been relieved of its contents, 
green tea, with ammonia, was injected therein ; fla- 
gellations with thin splints and wet towels, the cold 
douche, turpentine stupes and sinapisms to his 
calves and abdomen, were applied in succession 
without the least improvement in his condition. 
The bladder was relieved of six or eight ounces of 
light-colored urine by the catheter. I then thought 
of a most powerful remedy, which was attended 
with extraordinary success. I allude to the elec- 
tromagnetic battery, conjointly with electricity, 
which was set to work soon after four o'clock. The 
pulse became more steady, firm, and frequent, and 
the respirations more indicative of resuscitation. 
Our powerful electrical machine was got into full 
play before a large fire, and the jar filled, when 
some brilliant sparks and strong shocks were oc- 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 265 

casionally passed through his head, spine, thorax, 
and abdomen." — Lancet] January 27, 1844. 

" The result of this was, that the man opened 
his eyes and his mouth too, abusing the operators 
for a pack of rascals, who were trying specimens 
on him. But incomparably the most satisfactory 
effect was produced by giving him a shock on the 
tip of his nose. To use a phrase of the ring, he 
rallied wonderfully under this — a hint worth tak- 
ing." — Med. Ghir. Review, April, 1844, p. 544. 

A female, aged twenty-nine, had taken an 
ounce of laudanum an hour before ; the stomach 
pump had been applied before she got to the hospi- 
tal, where the application was repeated, and elec- 
tricity employed by S. P. James, Esq., who says 
she was in a state of the deepest insensibility when 
the operation was commenced, and that " when the 
sponge-directors were applied for a few minutes 
no sensible effect was produced, but soon after- 
wards the muscles of the neck began to quiver, 
when sensibility appeared gradually to return, and 
after twenty or thirty minutes the stimulus pro- 
duced undoubted discomfort, evinced by shrugging 
of the shoulders and attempts to avoid contacts 
with the sponges ; but the first marked influence 
of its effects was the ejection of a large quantity of 
fluid from the stomach. In another hour she ap- 
peared quite lively, answered questions distinctly, 
and in a moderately loud tone, though in a some- 
what peevish manner. The galvanism was occa- 
sionally intermitted for a few moments, when she 

relapsed almost instantaneously, and dropped off in 
12 



266 EFFECTS OF ELECTKICITY ON DISEASE. 

the midst of a sentence which she had commenced 
during the application of the stimulus. 

" The pupils remained unaffected till about two 
hours had elapsed, when they became somewhat 
more dilated, and sensible to a strong light. All 
the symptoms gradually diminished, but it was 
absolutely necessary to re-apply it, at longer inter- 
vals, until half-past five P.M., when she seemed so 
far recovered as to allow of her removal to the 
ward. From the easy diffusibility and quick pro- 
pagation of the galvanic fluid over the whole sys- 
tem, irritation capable of exciting action almost ad 
libitum can be applied to any part or even the 
whole of the body at one time, and that of a nature 
void of all the unpleasant results which necessarily 
follow bastinadoing, cold effusions, searing the part 
dolichos pruriens, and a whole catalogue of equally 
brutal resources, which, for the safety of the pa- 
dent, have necessarily been resorted to before gal- 
vanism was adopted. Dipping the sponges of the 
directors on this occasion in Moistened salt, assisted 
the passage of the current, and increased the con- 
ducting power to a striking degree. In ordinary 
cases where galvanism is used, the application, if 
strong, reddens the skin, and even produces some tu- 
mefaction, which remains often for hours ; but in this 
instance, although the power was probably three 
or four times as strong as is generally used, not the 
lightest discoloration was observable. It should 
;e noticed, that as soon as she was allowed to fall 
.nto a deep sleep, which she was occasionally per- 
mitted to do, the extraordinary influence of the 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 267 

battery was fully proved in rousing her instantly 
from the deepest narcotism to a fretful impatience ; 
the pulse gradually lowered, became slower in its 
action, and irregular in its movements ; but nc 
sooner was this remarkable stimulus applied again 
than the pulse rallied, was regular, fuller, and 
quicker; and the respirations, previously labored 
slow and unequal, became more frequent anc 
deeper. The countenance also evinced in a strikim 
manner the singular influence of this agent. Whei 
she was admitted the cheeks were of a leaden hue 
and the lips of a tawny color ; but after the expira 
tion of one hour, with the use of the battery, they 
resumed somewhat of a natural tint." — Lancet, 
June 19, 1847, p. 639. 

A case of Poisoning by Laudanum, successfully 
treated by keeping up artificial respiration by 
means of the galvanic battery. By William Bird, 

M.D. — " The patient was an infant. Mrs. B 

was confined by me on the 26th of January, 1852, 
with the subject of the present case ; therefore the 
age is correctly stated at thirty-nine days. 

" March 5, 1852. — This infant having a slight 
cough, his mother administered to him a small tea- 
spoonful of what she considered at the time to be a 
cough medicine ; but almost immediately afterwards 
she discovered that the bottle contained lauda- 
num, and that she had therefore committed a seri- 
ous error. This occurred shortly before one P. M. 
A very small portion of the laudanum was spilled, 
the child swallowing the remainder. When I saw 
it at five P. M., the infant was almost in articuh 



268 EFFECTS OF ELECTKICITY ON DISEASE. 

mortis, cold, pulseless, and the skin and face and 
extremities bine; dyspnoea excessive; respiration 
taking place only by irregular, convulsive catches ; 
pupils contracted to a mere point ; the eyes rotated 
upwards under the brows : the child lay still and 
motionless ; and, but for the occasional respiratory 
gasp, to all appearances dead. As the laudanum 
had been retained, and four hours had elapsed since 
its administration, I did not, from the appearance 
of the little patient, anticipate any thing but a 
speedy death ; but in order that the best chance 
might be given to it, strong mustard cataplasms 
were immediately applied along the spine, and an 
infusion of coffee administered, containing a little 
compound spirit of ammonia. This could only be 
given by a teaspoonful at a time ; and even then it 
was swallowed with considerable difficulty. While 
these remedies were being prepared, the nurse was 
directed to keep the child in constant agitation, 
and to rouse it as much as possible. After a time 
some little evidence of returning animation ap- 
peared ; it occasionally moved a limb, and at- 
tempted to open its eyes ; the respiration was a 
little less embarrassed, and he became more able 
to swallow the coffee. This was steadily given until 
between one and two ounces were administered. 
The mustard plaster by this time began to take 
effect, and so much counter-irritation was produced 
that I decided upon its removal for a time, lest 
vesication should be produced, which would wholly 
prevent the application of another. 

" The child had now become somewhat uneasy, 



EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 269 

and its respirations were performed with more fa- 
cility and regularity in consequence ; but little 
consciousness showed itself. At six P. M., the 
case was relapsing again into its former condition. 
Another sinapism was applied to the chest and 
abdomen. Of course, the child was not allowed 
to remain still during a single moment. 

" As it was clear that all the poison must have al- 
ready passed into the circulation, it was useless to 
give an emetic ; if administered, it would have prob- 
ably failed, and if it had succeeded, it would only 
have caused the ejection of the antidotes, viz., the cof- 
fee and ammonia; and as it was evident that the treat- 
ment of the case would last many hours, if success- 
ful, but would fail if at all slackened for an instant, 
I determined upon bringing electricity to our aid. 
The stream of electricity was maintained, with only 
an occasional intermission, during several hours. 
As long as the battery kept in action, all went well, 
the child breathed steadily, regularly, and almost 
as if nothing were the matter. At times the stream 
would get weaker, in consequence of more acid 
being required, or from the vibrating spring for 
making and breaking the contact getting out of 
order ; at these times the little patient would expe- 
rience a serious relapse. 

" At eleven P. M., it had a very narrow escape ; 
the only sign of life was derived from auscultation ; 
the heart was still found to beat, 'tap, tap,' about 
thirty times in a minute, faintly and just audibly. 
The battery at this nick of time was restored to 
action, and the aspect of the case again improved. 



270 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY ON DISEASE. 

From this period until two A. M., it was constantly 
kept in action. At this period the electricity was 
slightly discontinued, as consciousness began to man- 
ifest itself: the little resuscitated patient appeared 
restless, uneasy, and in pain from the repeated 
sinapisms ; it even attempted a feeble cry. In 
about ten minutes there were symptoms threaten- 
ing a relapse ; the battery was again used for a few 
minutes, and a stimulating enema of one drachm 
of spirits of turpentine, six drachms of castor oil, 
in about four ounces of strong infasion of coffee, 
was used, whilst some coffee, with a little brandy, 
was administered by the mouth. This was swal- 
lowed with difficulty ; some of it got into the la- 
rynx, and produced a fit of dyspnoea, but there was 
not sufficient nervous energy to produce a cough. 
Half-past three A. M. — Re was so much recovered 
that he no longer required the stimulus of the bat- 
tery ; he had continued to breathe with tolerable 
ease during the last half hour without its assistance. 
I left at four A. M., in charge of my pupil, Mr. 
Phelps, who watched it carefully until I came down 
at eight A. M. During the whole of this time the 
battery had been employed three times for short 
periods only ; the last application was seven A. M., 
during ten minutes. I found it breathing natur- 
ally and with tolerable regularity ; it would occa- 
sionally seem to catch in its breathing, as if a slight 
spasm of the glottis occurred ; but by blowing in 
its face or shaking it, the inspiratory act would be 
induced, and all would again go on smoothly for 



EFFECTS OF ELECTKICITY ON DISEASE. 271 

some time, when a repetition of the spasms would 
call for similar treatment. 

"At one P. M., March 6th, it was sufficiently re- 
covered to be left in charge of its anxious parents, 
and to be removed from my house, where it had 
been all night ; it was, however, still highly coma- 
tose, with the respiration occasionally stertorous. 
The bowels had not acted ; some little of the enema 
had returned at the time of its administration, 
otherwise the greater part had been retained. At 
four P. M. I visited it : all was going on well ; the 
child appeared to be slowly rallying from its stu- 
por ; it could not yet take the breast, but it swal- 
lowed small quantities of milk and water, given by 
the spoon, with more ease ; respiration was going 
on better ; the spasms continued to recur, though 
at longer intervals, and to become slighter in their 
intensity. The skin began to assume a more nat- 
ural, healthy tint ; it had lost the deadly sallow 
hue it formerly had. The temperature of the sur- 
face was more natural; there was not that neces- 
sity for artificial heat which existed previously ; it 
could now dispense with the fire and the blanket, 
and was lying in its cot ; the sleep was deep, but 
the breathing had lost its stertor. Eight P. M., the 
little patient continued to do well, but had not yet 
been able to take the breast. I advised them to 
watch it well during the night ; in fact, to remain 
up with it. 

" 7th, one P. M. — Every thing progressing very 
favorably ; the child had awakened from its leth- 
argy ; it had taken the breast and cried lustily dux 



272 EFFECTS OF ELECTKICTTY ON DISEASE. 

ing the night. All danger therefore appeared gone. 
A dose of castor oil was ordered, and I prescribed 
a slight antimonial mixture for the cough, which 
appeared to trouble it. 

"8th. — Improved in all respects; ceased attend- 
ance." — The Chemist, London. 

The foregoing cases have been presented in 
order to draw the attention of the medical profes- 
sion to the necessity of an immediate application 
of the galvanic current in all those of a similar 
character, electricity being the most stimulating 
agent which can be employed. Sufficient evidence 
in its favor, as above, has been adduced by phy- 
sicians in Europe, whose motives and character 
are above suspicion, and whose reputations, estab- 
lished in their respective countries, are appreci- 
ated in ours. 

The loss of life that so frequently shrouds many 
rural habitations as well as those in our cities and 
villages in mourning, the result of railroad acci- 
dents, steam-boiler explosions, the falling of build- 
ings, burning, snagging and collisions of steam- 
boats, and the capsizing of sail-boats, stimulates us 
to give place to the following communication by a 
physician in reference to the Greenwich Avenue 
calamity of the 20th day of November, 1851, which 
shrouded our city in gloom ; a day that will be long 
remembered by many of our citizens whose be- 
loved ones, in the blossom of youth, were hurried 
to a premature grave. 

The communication above alluded to, kindly fu r- 
nished us by Dr. Yanderpool, is as follows : 



EFFECTS OF ELECTKICITY ON DISEASE. 273 

" Dr. Huff — Dear Sir: In compliance with your 
request, I now giye you a brief account of the 
use of the galvanic battery upon the injured chil- 
dren of the Greenwich Avenue catastrophe. I was 
perhaps thirty minutes later in attendance at the 
station-house than many other physicians ; at this 
time I counted twenty-eight who appeared to be 
dead. A battery being soon introduced, was used 
upon several of these in connection with artificial 
respiration ; but failing in any good result, I sug- 
gested its use upon a child who was livid and swol- 
len, and who simply showed signs of life, but was 
breathless and entirely insensible to all ordinary 
stimulus. One pole of the battery was applied to 
the head and back of the neck, whilst the other 
was applied to the soles of the feet ; in a few mo- 
ments he moved his feet, and in a few more was 
so roused as to attempt a cry, which he soon ac- 
complished. Respiration becoming established, 
he began to convalesce. In the evening I saw him 
before he was removed, and although very torpid, 
he would speak. He ultimately recovered. 
" Yours truly, 

" Edward Yanderpool, M.D. 

"New-York, July, 1852." 

We might, if we chose to draw on our expe- 
rience in the successful application of electro- 
galvanism to cases in the cure of which all other 
remedial means have failed, increase the present 
work to a limit far beyond that which we purpose, 
but we pause on the threshold. 
12* 



CHAPTER XVI. 

^Influences of improper JFooir, &c* t on t\)t ffluman 
System, 

Table of the Various Kinds of Food— Various Periods of Time occupied by 
them in the Digestive Process — Quantity and Quality of Food — Tempera- 
ment—The Sanguine— The Lymphatic— The Nervous— The Bilious— Time 
not to be exceeded between Breakfast and Dinner — Fat and Oily Meats — 
Excessive Use of Pork— Soups— Pastry, Puddings, &c— Fish, Water— Rest 
of Body and Mind necessary to Digestion — The Gastric Juice— Dr. Caldwell, 
of Kentucky— Table containing a Graduated Scale of the Nutrition con- 
tained in Various Kinds o Food. 

Anxious to afford any information in a work, 
the object of which is to present the philosophy as 
well as the remedial agents of disease, and the ra- 
tional prevention as well as the cure, we insert a 
table showing the mean time consumed by the 
various articles of food in the process of digestion, 
and would recommend a careful perusal of it, and 
some attention to the practical results which it pre- 
sents. 

It is said that a Frenchman who had but recently 
landed at New-Orleans, and who had had no 
opportunity to form an opinion of the gastric 
capabilities of his new friends, very politely in- 
quired, with a countenance exhibiting much 
astonishment, on seeing an American breakfast 
placed upon the table before one of our citizens, 
whether the varied and sumptuous meal was a 
breakfast or a dinner ; a just rebuke on the num- 
ber of dishes of which we partake at our meals, 



INFLUENCES OF IMPROPER FOOD. 



275 



without any reference to the digestive condition 
of the stomach, and with a rapidity which almost 
outstrips time itself, in the endeavor rather to bolt 
than eat the food. 

The table, which we present below, will serve as 
a guide to the periods of time which particular 
foods consume in the digestive process : 



Articles. 



Prepara- 


Time. 


tion. 






h. m. 


Raw, 


2 50 


Raw, 


2 


Raw, 


1 30 


Broiled, 


3 


Boiled, 


2 30 


Roasted, 


3 


Roasted, 


3 30 


Broiled, 


3 


Boiled, 


3 36 


Boiled, 


3 10 


Fried, 


4 


Boiled, 


4 15 


Boiled, 


3 45 


Baked, 


3. 30 


Baked, 


3 15 


Melted, 


3 30 


Raw, 


2 30 


Raw, 


2 


Boiled, 


4 30 


Baked, 


2 30 


Boiled, 


3 15 


Fried, 


3 30 


Raw, 


3 30 


Fricasseed. 


2 45 


Boiled, 


2 


Boiled, 


3 45 


Baked, 


3 15 


Baked, 


3 


Baked, 


2 45 


Boiled, 


3 


Roasted, 


4 


Roasted, 


4 30 


Boiled rare, 


3 


Boiled hard, 


3 30 


Fried, 


3 30 



Apples, sour, hard, . . . 

, mellow, . 

, sweet, do., . . . 

Bass, striped, fresh, . . . 

Beans, pod, 

Beef, fresh, lean, rare,. 

, dry,. 

, steak, 

, with salt only, . 

, with mustard, . 

, fresh, lean, 

, old, hard, salted, 

Beets, 

Bread, wheat, fresh, .. 

, corn, 

Butter, 

Cabbage head, 

, with vinegar, . 

Cake, sponge, 

Carrot, orange, 

Catfish, 

Cheese, old, strong, . . . 
Chicken, fall grown, . . 
Codfish, cured, dry, . . . 
Corn, green, and beans 

bread, 

cake, 

Custard, 

Dumpling, apple, 

Ducks, domesticated, . . 

, wild, 

Eggs, fresh, 



276 



INFLUENCES OF IMPROPER FOOD. 



Articles. 



Eggs, fresh, .., 
Flounder, fresh, 
Fowl, domestic, , 



Goose, 

Lamb, fresh, 

Liver, beef's, fresh, 

Meat hashed with vegetables, 
Milk 



Mutton, fresh, 



Oysters, fresh,, 



Parsnips, 

Pig, sucking, 

Pig's feet, soused, 
Pork, fat and lean, . . . 
, recently salted, 



Potatoes, Irish, 



Rice, . 

Sago, ■ 

Salmon, salted, 

Sausage, fresh, 

Soup, beef, vegetables, and bread. 

, chicken, 

, mutton, ...., 

, qyster, 

Suet, beef, fresh 

, mutton, 

Tapioca, 

Tripe, soused, 

Trout, salmon, fresh, 



Turkey, domesticated,. 



, wild, 

Turnips, flat, 
Veal, fresh, . 



Venison steak, , 



Prepara- 


Time. 


tion. 




Raw, 


2 


Fried, 


3 30 


Boiled, 


4 


Roasted, 


4 


Roasted, 


2 30 


Broiled, 


2 30 


Broiled, 


2 


Warmed, 


2 30 


Boiled, 


2 


Raw, 


2 15 


Roasted, 


3 15 


Broiled, 


3 


Boiled, 


3 


Raw, 


2 55 


Roasted, 


3 15 


Stewed, 


3 30 


Boiled. 


2 30 


Roasted. 


2 30 


Boiled, 


1 


Roasted, 


5 15 


Boiled, 


4 30 


Fried, 


4 15 


Broiled, 


3 15 


Raw, 


3 


Broiled, 


3 15 


Boiled, 


3 30 


Baked, 


2 30 


Boiled, 


1 


Boiled, 


1 45 


Boiled, 


4 


Broiled, 


3 20 


Boiled, 


4 


Boiled, 


3 


Boiled, 


3 30 


Boiled, 


3 30 


Boiled, 


5 30 


Boiled, 


4 30 


Boiled, 


2 


Boiled, 


1 


Boiled, 


1 30 


Fried, 


1 30 


Roasted, 


2 30 


Boiled, 


2 25 


Roasted, 


2 18 


Boiled, 


3 30 


Broiled, 


4 


Fried, 


4 30 


Broiled, 


1 35 



INFLUENCES OF IMPROPER FOOD. 277 

The. quantity, equally with the quality of food 
necessary to support the system, varies with the 
age, occupation, temperament, climate, habit, 
amount of clothing, health, and disease. 

The child in the rapid development of its ani- 
mal organization, and its rapid arterial and venous 
circulation, demands more nourishment than the 
adult, whose system is matured, and whose con- 
sequent waste of vital power is less rapid. 

The more laborious the occupation and conse- 
quent expenditure of muscular power, the greater 
will be the amount of nourishment required. 

Temperament, or peculiar constitution of body, 
exerts no inconsiderable influence on the quantity 
and quality of food necessary to sustain the sys- 
tem. In the sanguine, distinguished by its fine 
white and red complexion, general plumpness of 
form, broad chest, and great hilarity of animal 
spirits, the circulation is rapid, the blood rich, and 
all the animal functions performed with great en- 
ergy. There is in this form of temperament a general 
predisposition to inflammatory affections. 

The food suitable to this physical condition 
should be of that kind which is not rapidly con- 
verted into blood by digestion, as soup, fish, mu- 
cilaginous vegetables, acidulous fruits, &c. 

In the lymphatic temperament, indicated by 
general paleness of skin, inaptitude to mental or 
corporeal exertion, great deficiency of nervous 
power, and, in some cases, extreme obesity or fat- 
ness, the arterial system as well as the venous is 
inactive. 



278 INFLUENCES OF IMPROPER FOOD. 

Animal food is indicated by this temperament, 
wine and spices ; indeed, any kind of diet which 
will invigorate the organic functions by stimulating 
the nerves on which they are dependent. 

In the nervous temperament, indicated by a thin 
skin, large cerebral (or brain) development, small 
muscular system, and generally more than usual 
intellectual power, the expenditure of muscular 
energy is prodigious ; the well developed and active 
nervous system excites that of the muscles beyond 
its natural capabilities ; the physical frame is weak, 
but, driven onward by the superior force of the 
nerves, performs its actions with great rapidity. 

Light nourishing food is best adapted to this 
temperament, as white meats, fowl and fish, fari- 
naceous and mucilaginous aliments ; a diet that will 
nourish the muscular without exciting the nervous 
system. 

In the bilious temperament, indicated by a bilious 
color of the skin, predominant venous circulation, 
and inactivity, unless when roused by some power- 
ful excitement, the diet should be nourishing, but 
not too exciting. Fat and oily meats should be 
especially avoided. 

Climate indicates particular kinds of diet. In 
cold, northern climates, or in the winters of those 
in the temperate zones, food of a much more stim- 
ulating nature may be taken with impunity than 
in southern climes, or in the summers of the tem- 
perate. In warm latitudes much less animal food is 
requisite than in colder ones, where a large supply 
is necessary, especially if great exercise be taken. 



INFLUENCES OF IMPROPER FOOD. 279 

Five or six hours should generally intervene 
between the periods of eating. Digestion occupies 
from three to four hours, and the stomach, like 
other muscular organs, requires repose to prepare 
for fresh exertion. If one meal follows another 
too rapidly, the latter will run into fermentation ; 
for the whole of the gastric juice secreted (the only 
preventive of fermentation in the stomach) will 
have been expended on the former, and a fresh 
supply requires considerable time for its proper 
secretion. 

For those actively engaged during the day, an 
early breakfast, dinner, and supper, will most con- 
duce to vigorous health ; for those who violate the 
laws of nature by turning day into night, a late 
breakfast and dinner. 

Persons who eat late suppers should breakfast 
and dine late the succeeding day 

The time elapsing between breakfast and dinner 
should not exceed five or six hours ; for youth, 
and persons taking great exercise, the period may 
be shortened. 

When dinner is early, some weak tea, milk, or 
water, with a small quantity of bread and butter, 
may form the evening meal ; but when the dinner 
is late, no food should succeed it. If any supper is 
taken, it should be of the most light kind, as biscuit, 
a little arrow root or sago, and even these one or 
two hours before retiring to rest. 

Fat and oily meats are the most indigestible 
among the articles of animal food. The excessive 
use of pork will give rise to gout and scrofula. 



280 INFLUENCES OF IMPKOPER FOOD. 

Keferring to the table, it will be seen that five 
and a quarter hours are consumed in digesting this 
kind of animal food. 

In the next rank we may place vegetables, 
which are apt to run into acetous fermentation. 

Soups are acted upon by the gastric juices of the 
stomach with great difficulty, and produce the 
most severe forms of dyspepsia. 

Pastry, puddings, rich cake and their relatives, 
are the most indigestible of all food prepared to 
indulge the pampered appetite; children should 
never be allowed to touch them, with the excep- 
tion of boiled rice, plain Indian meal pudding, 
and some other of the more plain and simple kinds. 

Fish holds an intermediate place between warm- 
blooded animal food and vegetable ; it is far less 
nutricious than beef or mutton. Halibut is the 
most digestible of salt water fish ; perch of fresh 
water. 

Water, among the fluids, is the best promoter 
of digestion, as it is the best conservator of the 
morals and the happiness of society. The more 
stimulating beverages are always prejudicial. 

We cannot take leave of this important subject 
without adverting to the conditions necessary to 
insure and promote a healthy digestion. The de- 
termination of the circulating fluids to the mucous 
coat of the stomach, and the viscera immediately 
connected with it, during the process of digestion, 
imperiously requires that the function should not 
be interfered with by moral or physical interrupt 
tion. 



INFLUENCES OF IMPROPER FOOD. 281 

Best of body and of mind, both preceding and 
subsequently to digestion, for a short time, are 
essential to its healthy condition. Whatever forces 
the nervous energy or the circulation, by calling into 
action other functions, either menial or physical, from 
the digestive organs, is highly injurious to a proper 
digestion. 

The gastric juice necessary to the digestion of 
a hearty meal, is never secreted in less than an 
hour or an hour and a half after such meal is 
taken. Eepose is necessary and beneficial during 
the interval. 

Hilarity and ease of mind promote digestion ; 
while care and its relatives impede it. 

Dr. Caldwell, an able writer on physiology, 
remarks, truly, that indigestion commences as 
often in the brain as in the stomach. The stock- 
jobber, the speculator and the student, are equally 
liable to its attacks : in these departments of life, 
the brain is in a continual state of over-exertion. 

The quantity of food taken should have strict 
reference to the state of the digestive organs. If 
the latter be weak or diseased, a small amount of 
food only should be taken. 

We are convinced that many of the diseases of 
childhood are produced by violating this law; 
that one third of the infant population, whose 
deaths swell our public obituary notices, are de- 
stroyed by the mistaken indulgence of parents 
and the ignorance of nurses. 

The stomach, crammed beyond its powers, be- 
comes oppressed, obstinate indigestion ensues ; the 



282 



INFLUENCES OF IMPROPER FOOD. 



brain, by its nerves of communication with the 
stomach, quickly sympathizes with that organ ; the 
circulation through the former becomes impeded. 
We shall close our remarks on digestion by pre- 
senting our readers with the following table, which 
determines the amount of nutrition in the various 
articles enumerated. We may observe, for the 
benefit of those unacquainted with animal chem- 
istry, that nitrogen and water contain no nutrition. 



One hundred Parts. 



Arrowroot, 

Beans, 

Beef, fresh, 

Bread, rye, 

Butter, 

Cabbage, 

Carrot 

Cherries, 

Chickens, 

Codfish 

Cucumbers, 

Eggs, whites, . 

— . yolk, 

Lard, hog's, 

Milk, cow's, 

Oats, 

Oatmeal, 

Olive-oil, 

Oysters, 

Peaches, 

Pears, 

Peas, 

Plums, greengage, . 

Potatoes, . 

%e, 

_Suet, mutton, 
Starch, potato, . . . 

, wheat, 

Sugar, maple, .... 

, refined,. . . 

brown, . . . 



Dry 
Matter. 



81.8 
85.89 
25 
67.79 

100 
7.7 
12.4 
25.15 
22.7 
20 

2.86 
20 

46.23 

100 
12.98 
79.2 
93.4 

100 
12.6 
19.76 
16.12 
84 

28.90 
24.1 
83.4 

100 
82 
85.2 



7.5 



Carbon. 



Turnips, . 

Veal, roasted, 

Wheat, ! 85.5 



36.4 
38.24 
2.957 
30.674 
65.6 



79.098 
40.154 
77.50 

35.743 

10.604 

38.530 

78.996 

36.44 

37.5 

42.1 

42.5 

40.88 

3.2175 
52.52 
39415 



Nitrogen, 



3.752 



0.28 
0.30 



1.742 



0.3615 
1.417 



0.1275 
14.70 
1.966 



Water. 



18.2 
14.11 
75 
32.21 

92.3 

87.6 

74.85 

77.3 

80 

97.14 

80 

53.77 

87.02 
20.8 



87.4 

80.24 

83.88 

16 

71.10 

75.9 

16.6 

18 
14.8 



92.5 



14.5 



CHAPTEE XVII. 
influence of WLlcoljol on tfje ?&3uw<iit<S»5tcnt. 

First Effect of Alcohol on the Mucous Lining of the Stomach — Enters the Veins 
of the Stomach — Is mixed with the Blood — Post-mortem Examination of 
Drunkards — What is the Condition of the Blood in Intern perates?— Alco- 
holic Congestion of the Brain — Nervous System of the Inebriate — The De- 
pression of the Vital Powers — The Tremulous Hand — Effects of Dram Drink- 
ing on the Muscular System — Spontaneous Combustion from Drinking— 
Many Cases Recorded— Is Alcohol a Poison?— Figure of Antiquity— Mr. 
Fyfe, of Edinburgh — Who were the Principal Victims to the Cholera? — 
Typhoid Ship Fever— Picture of the Physical Appearance of the Confirmed 
Drunkard— Murder, Manslaughter, Suicide — Difficulty of applying a Rem- 
edy in the Present State of our Laws. 

When alcoholic drinks have been taken into the 
stomach, in any considerable quantity, the first 
effect produced is a stimnlation of the raucous or 
lining membrane of the stomach, which is denoted 
by a sense of warmth in that organ. By this 
stimulation the blood is attracted to the mucous 
membrane, with which the stimulating fluid is in 
contact, its color becomes reddened, and. a state of 
congestion is produced. 

But the alcohol is speedily removed from the 
stomach by the activity of the absorbents ; it enters 
the veins of the stomach, and is intermingled with 
the blood, preserving still the form of alcohol. 
Through the venous system it is carried to the 
right side of the heart with the returning current 
of blood. From the right chambers of the heart 



284 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

it is propelled through the pulmonary artery into 
the lungs, where in the air-cells a portion of it 
becomes mingled with the atmosphere during the 
process of aerating the blood. It is this com- 
mingling of the alcohol and the air in respiration, 
which, for the most part, loads the breath of 
brandy drinkers with the odor of that liquor. 
But only a portion of the alcohol taken into the 
circulation is thus exhaled through the lungs; 
the balance is carried through the pulmonary 
veins to the left side of the heart, and from thence 
it is propelled through the arteries to every part 
of the body : in this way it is brought into 
immediate contact with all the tissues of the 
organism. "What becomes of the alcohol after it 
has been mingled with the blood and carried 
throughout the body? A portion of it is con- 
sumed by the vital processes, another portion is 
secreted by the kidneys and perhaps by the liver, 
and the balance is exhaled by the skin and lungs. 
"What effect does alcohol produce upon the tis- 
sues through which it circulates commingled with 
the blood ? Its primary influence is undoubtedly 
that of a stimulant upon all of them. Witness the 
increased frequency and force of the heart's con« 
tractions, the increased rapidity of the circulation 
of the blood, and the increased activity in the 
movements of respiration produced by it. These 
effects of a single glass of ardent spirits are mostly 
transient in their character. The congestion of 
the stomach usually subsides soon after the disap- 
pearance of the irritant which produces it. The 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 285 

activity of the circulation of the blood declines as 
the alcohol is eliminated or removed from the 
body, and this subsidence continues not only till 
the healthy standard has been gained, but passes 
even beyond it, and a state of depression, fully 
corresponding in degree to the previous excite- 
ment, is developed. 

Having considered some of the most obvious 
effects of a single glass of ardent spirits, let us 
now proceed to consider what consequences are 
produced if the doses of alcohol are habitually 
repeated at short intervals ; in other words, let 
us now examine into the consequences of spirit 
drinking as they are developed in the intemperate. 

1. It is a fact well known to all who are much 
engaged in making post-mortem examinations, 
that the stomachs of old spirit drinkers are gen- 
erally more or less diseased. On dissecting such 
cases, that organ is commonly found to be in- 
creased in size and capacity, from the large quan- 
tity of fluids which had habitually been poured 
into it. Its mucous or lining membrane is usually 
found to be thickened, softened, and more or less 
reddened. The reddening may be confined to 
isolated spots, or be spread uniformly over its 
whole surface. So constantly are these lesions 
found on examining the bodies of old drinkers, 
particularly if death has occurred suddenly, that 
some pathologists have familiarly christened them 
the u rum stomach /" Occasionally even ulcers are 
discovered in that organ on making such dissec- 
tions. The morbid alterations in the appearance 



286 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

and structure of the gastric mucous membrane, 
just described, are due to a slow inflammatory 
process, which had been produced at the outset, 
and kept up after such production, by the irrita- 
ting quality of the fluids (alcoholic) with which 
that delicate membrane had habitually been 
bathed. That such results are produced by a free 
use of alcoholic drinks there is no room for doubt. 
The stomach becomes unfitted in a greater or less 
degree, according to the severity of the alcoholic 
lesions, for the performance of its proper office in 
the digestion of food. The miserable sufferer has 
loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, unquench- 
able thirst, with pain and tenderness in the af- 
fected organ. The stomach is surcharged with 
gases and acid fluid, because even the little food 
he consumes, instead of being properly digested, 
undergoes the putrefactive process, among the 
products of which acetic acid and several gases 
may be enumerated. Thus the sufferings are 
greatly increased, and thus the symptoms of the 
worst forms of dyspepsia are developed in intem- 
perate persons. 

2. Again, on dissecting the bodies of such per- 
sons, the liver is generally found to be diseased to a 
greater or less extent. We often discover its size to 
be greatly increased, and that its color is changed 
from the healthy reddish brown to a pale yellow. 
On further examination we ascertain that the 
increase in size and the altered color depend upon 
a deposit of fatty matter in the tissue of the organ, 
which seriously impairs its functions. The bile is 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 287 

not properly separated from the blood, or if it is 
separated, resorption occurs, and the current of 
life wherever it flows is impregnated with the 
biliary secretion. Hence occurs the sallow tinge 
and the jaundiced hue which we so often see in 
the countenances of drunkards. We might enu- 
merate other types of the "ram liver" but this is 
sufficient for our present purpose. How alcoholic 
stimulants produce these alterations in the struc- 
ture of the liver, we shall endeavor to state 
presently. 

3. What is the condition of the blood in intern 
perate persons ? That it contains alcohol we have 
already mentioned; and this is not a theoretical 
idea, nor a deduction of reason alone, but is sus- 
ceptible of rigid proof by experiment. Again, 
not only is the blood of drunkards impregnated 
with spirit, but the relative proportion of its 
component parts is materially altered. Chemical 
analysis has abundantly shown that the blood of 
old drinkers contains a much larger proportion of 
oily and fatty matter than in health. " In fine, 
all authors are agreed, that the blood of dram- 
drinkers contains a much larger proportion of 
carbon than that of healthy individuals. Schoolan 
has estimated the excess of carbon in the blood of 
drunkards to be not less than 30 per cent." But, 
says Dr. Huss, u This result, however, holds good 
only for a certain period of the dram-drinker's life, 
viz., as long as the nutritive functions continue 
uninjured. During this time the subject remains 
stout and plump; but as the digestive powers 



288 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

begin to fail, and the appetite diminishes while the 
craving for brandy is increased, the fat deposited 
in the cellular tissue is re-absorbed, and emaciation 
begins. As this progresses, the patient becomes 
generally cachectic, the serum is augmented, the 
proportion of blood globules is diminished, and 
the blood when drawn shows less and less dispo- 
sition to coagulate. Still, even in such cases, I 
have detected the oil globules in the blood of both 
sides of the heart." (Dr. Huss on Alcoholismus 
Chronicus, p. 206.) 

JSTow we are better able to "understand how the 
drunkard's fatty liver is produced. That organ 
is incapable of fulfilling its office of cleansing the 
blood, which is brought to it overloaded with oily 
particles and other products of carbon. This fat 
is partly deposited in the liver itself, and partly 
carried forward into the general current of the 
circulation, to accumulate in other organs and 
tissues. It is by the prolongation of this process 
of fatty deposition, that the drunkard's liver 
reaches the enormous size which it sometimes 
attains. 

4. But indulgence in the use of spirituous drinks 
not only produces a diseased condition of the 
stomach, the liver, and the blood; it also de- 
ranges the structure and functions of the nervous 
system, including the brain and spinal cord. It 
is indeed upon these organs that the worst conse- 
quences are produced; consequences, too, which, 
although earliest in their appearance, are too often 
overlooked ^even by practised observers. 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 289 

"We have already mentioned that when alcohol 
is circulating through the veins and arteries of the 
body commingled with the blood, the action of 
the heart is quickened and the circulation acceler- 
ated. Now it necessarily results from this, that 
more than a healthy quantity of blood is sent to 
the brain, and that a congested condition of the 
brain and its membranes is produced. If the 
supply of spirit in the blood be kept up by dram- 
drinking, this congested state of the brain will be 
constantly maintained. Hence we find, on exam- 
ining the brains of drunkards after death, the 
cerebral vessels loaded with blood, and all the 
smaller blood-vessels increased in size or dilated, 
from the protracted, unnatural internal pressure to 
which they have been subjected. On slicing up 
the brain, in many cases, this dilatation of the 
smaller veins and arteries which traverse the 
organ is found so well marked, that a section pre- 
sents a "cribriform" or sieve-like appearance, called 
by pathological anatomists the " etat crible du cer- 
veau" or " sieve-like condition of the brain." But 
it should be borne in mind, that this congestion, 
with dilatation of the cerebral vessels, is produced 
and maintained with impure blood, that is, with 
blood rendered unhealthy because it contains alco- 
hol, and a great excess of fatty particles and car- 
bonaceous matter generally. Hence the conse- 
quences of alcoholic congestion of the brain, as 
developed in the deranged structure and functions 
of that delicate organ, have a two-fold origin. 
They are such as result, first, from ordinary cere- 
13 



290 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

bral congestion, and second, from the impurities of 
the blood already mentioned : of these the former 
tends most strongly to produce lesions of structure, 
and the latter lesions of function. 

The consequences of chronic alcoholic conges- 
tion of the brain, which are most frequently met 
with on dissecting the intemperate, are the follow- 
ing: old inflammatory thickening of the mem- 
branes of the brain ; effusion of the serum or watery 
portion of the blood beneath the membranes and 
Over the surface of the organ; effusion of blood 
itself upon the brain, from rupture of the dis- 
tended vessels; chronic dilatation of the vessels, 
which has already been alluded to ; softening of 
the substance of the brain, particularly of the 
surface of the convolutions, or the gray cerebral 
matter, and of the cerebellum or little brain. 
Sometimes the brains of intemperate persons are 
found to be indurated or hardened, instead of 
being softened; neither can we wonder at the 
production of these opposite conditions of the 
cerebral substance by the same deleterious agent, 
(alcohol,) when we consider that both induration 
and softening are common results of various 
grades of congestion and inflammation, in all the 
tissues of the body. Theabove are the most com- 
mon lesions of structure discovered in the brains 
of spirit drinkers. 

Again, the nervous system of the inebriate ex- 
hibits certain lesions of function which are quite 
as well marked as the lesions of structure just 
mentioned. That an adequate supply of healthy 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 291 

blood is necessary for the proper performance of 
the functions of the brain, is an undeniable propo- 
sition. That constant irritation of the brain by 
alcohol, commingled with its nutrient blood, is 
followed, sooner or later, by depression of its en- 
ergies, is equally true. Now the blood of drunk- 
ards, in addition to alcohol, contains so much 
carbon, that it cannot be adequately arterialized 
in the lungs, and thus their arterial blood is loaded 
more or less with the peculiar constituents of the 
venous, and is therefore in a morbid condition in 
this respect. From this there results a very im- 
portant consequence : for the imperfectly arterial- 
ized blood is unable to restore the depression of 
the cerebral function occasioned directly by alco- 
hol. Both morbid states of the drunkard's blood 
therefore conduce to the same end — the lowering of 
the vital powers of his brain and nervous system. 

It is this depression of the vital powers which 
renders the recuperative energies of the system so 
feeble, and attacks of acute disorders so fatal, in 
intemperate persons. Indeed, not unfrequently 
this diminution of the vital powers goes on to such 
an extent, as to become almost the sole immediate 
cause of death ; or in other words, death occurs 
without the intervention of an acute disorder, 
Such people, according to our experience, always 
die suddenly, and the post-mortem examination, 
however skilfully made, reveals no structural 
changes in any organ, except those occasioned by 
alcohol ; lesions which had been produced slowly 
and had existed for some time antecedent to death. 



292 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

"We have repeatedly met with instates where 
persons of long-standing intemperate itabits, after 
complaining for a brief period of unusual debility, 
and even without complaining at all, have sud- 
denly fallen down and immediately expired. We 
have carefully examined the various organs of 
their bodies, and by such examinations have been 
constrained to believe, that death had been occa- 
sioned by a sudden extinction of the previously 
enfeebled vital powers. This opinion is strength- 
ened by the fact, that, in such cases, but little or 
no muscular rigidity appears subsequent to death. 
Many of the so-called cases of apoplexy are prob- 
ably of this sort. 

The tremulous hand, the impaired memory, the 
confusion of ideas, and the want of ability to con- 
centrate thought upon a given subject, are the 
earliest evidences of the deleterious influence of 
alcohol upon the human brain. Next to these 
appear muscular debility, strange sensations, and 
numbness in different parts of the body, particu- 
larly in the feet, legs, and hands, impairment of 
vision, indistinctness of speech, great increase of 
the muscular tremulousness, cramps and convul- 
sive movements, epilepsy, great impairment of the 
intellectual faculties, delirium tremens, insanity, 
idiocy, and death. Let no skeptic or unwary 
moderate drinker consider this picture to be over- 
drawn, for the statement of facts we have made is 
brief, and therefore must be incomplete. 

Death is sometimes occasioned by a large quan- 
tity of ardent spirits taken at one time into the 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 293 

stomach, either through sheer bravado, or in con- 
sequence of a bet, or at the solicitation of an inj u- 
dicious friend. In such cases the lesions exhibited 
on dissection vary much, according to the condi- 
tion of the subject previous to the fatal occur- 
rence. If the subject be one of temperate habits, 
we find the mucous membrane of the stomach 
congested and reddened, the lungs and abdominal 
viscera generally exhibiting venous congestion, 
and the brain also congested. The odor of alco- 
hol is commonly perceptible in the contents of the 
stomach, and sometimes can be detected in the 
brain and lungs. If some time has elapsed be- 
tween the drinking of the poison and the fatal 
event, the odor of alcohol may be wanting in the 
stomach, because it has mostly been removed from 
that organ by the activity of its absorbent vessels. 
If on the other hand the subject be one of intempe- 
rate habits, the gastric mucous membrane is almost 
blackened in spots of varying size, from effusion 
of blood into or beneath that membrane, the lungs 
are strongly congested, and may even exhibit pul- 
monary apoplexy, and besides other lesions the 
brain exhibits more congestion than in the former 
case. There is, however, a general similarity in 
the symptoms presented in all cases of fatal poi- 
soning by an overdose of ardent spirits. The 
subject passes from a state of drunken stupor into 
total unconsciousness, stertorous breathing com- 
mences, and after the lapse of several hours, he ex- 
pires with or without convulsive movements. The 
cause of death, in all such cases, is the chemico- 



294 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

vital action of alcohol upon the blood and the 
various organs of the body, and particularly upon 
the nervous system. 

5th. Under the influence of dram-drinking, the 
muscular system undergoes certain alterations in 
structure and appearance, which should not be 
passed over in silence. In old drunkards, especially 
if they are also old in years, the muscles, or prin- 
cipal organs of locomotion, are found to be smaller, 
paler, softer, and more flabby than in the healthy 
state. This atrophy appears to depend, first, upon 
the imperfect nutrition of those organs resulting 
from the poor quality and impure state of the 
blood ; and, second, upon the disuse of the mus- 
cles, which naturally succeeds the depression of the 
vital powers. Examination of such muscles with 
the microscope often shows that particles of oily 
or fatty matter have usurped the place of true 
muscular fibre. Even in intemperate persons of a 
stout and plump appearance, it has been found that 
the muscles are wasted, pale, and flabby, and that 
the size and rotundity of limb and figure are pro- 
duced by a morbid deposition of fat in the cellular 
tissue. Need we wonder then that such persons 
are incapable of enduring severe muscular exer- 
cise, and that they rapidly succumb to hardship 
and privation ? Is it not rather a wonder that their 
diseased organisms are capable of enduring so 
much as they are? 

We have thus stated in a general way the morbid 
effects of alcoholic drinks upon the stomach and 
brain: we have shown that the quantity of carlo- 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 295 

naceons matter in the blood becomes largely in- 
creased under their protracted use, and that the 
quantity of fat in the liver, muscles, and general 
cellular tissue, is greatly augmented. Now let us 
ask, Does this accumulation and metamcrphosis 
of the natural tissues into fatty and carbonaceous 
matter ever proceed to such an extent that the 
human body becomes combustible, that is, capable 
of being burned up when once ignited, like fuel 
after being set on fire ? This question can be an- 
swered in the affirmative. A considerable number 
of well-authenticated cases are now on record, of 
what has been termed the spontaneous combustion 
of the human body. The learned Orfila thus de- 
scribes the phenomena which accompany it : "A 
light-blue flame appears over the part about to be 
attacked : this flame is not readily extinguished by 
water, and, indeed, freqiiently the addition of this 
liquid only serves to increase its activity. Deep 
eschars now form in the part affected, accompanied 
by convulsions, delirium, vomiting, and diarrhoea, 
followed by a peculiar state of putrefaction and 
death. The process is said to advance with extreme 
rapidity, but the body is never entirely consumed: 
some parts are only half burnt, while others are 
completely incinerated, a carbonaceous, fetid, unc- 
tuous ash remaining. The hands and feet com- 
monly escape destruction, while the trunk is usually 
entirely dissipated. The wooden and other com 
bustible articles of furniture situated near the indi- 
vidual, are either uninjured or but imperfectly con- 
sumed ; the clothes, however, covering the body, 



296 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

are commonly destroyed. The walls and furniture 
of the apartment are covered with a thick, greasy 
soot, and the air is impregnated with an offensive 
empyreumatic odor. This phenomenon is stated to 
have been chiefly observed in corpulent females, 
advanced in life, and especially in those subjects 
who had been long addicted to the abuse of spirituous 
liquors" Says Dr. Guy, another eminent writer : 
"The cases on record maybe fairly allowed to 
prove an unusual degree of combustibility of the 
human body, occurring in rare instances, and, for 
the most part, in corpulent spirit-drinking females, 
merely requiring to be set on fire, and needing no 
other fuel but their clothes or night-dress." (Vide 
Guy's Forensic Medicine, p. 497.) 

Many persons will doubtless consider the above 
proposition as a very startling one, and for their 
benefit, we will now proceed to the narration of 
several cases of the so-called spontaneous combus- 
tion. 

A female, aged about thirty-nine, of intemperate 
habits, but apparently robust and healthy, lived in 
an upper room by herself. On the evening of 
Dec. 31st, she was seen to be intoxicated in her 
room by an acquaintance, who left her at a late 
hour of the night. In the morning, on calling, 
the same person could not gain admittance, and 
on waiting until eleven o'clock, she contrived to 
get in at a back window, where she discovered the 
remains of the body near the middle of the floor, in 
which a hole was burnt entirely through, about four 
feet in diameter, the bones lying beneath. The flesh 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 297 

of the whole body was consumed, except a small 
portion on the skull, on one shoulder, and on the 
lower part of one leg and foot, which was burnt 
off in its smallest part, as even as if it had been 
cut off, and lay by itself on the floor. The stock- 
ing was burnt off as far as the leg, and no farther. 
The bones, some of which were black and others 
white, were so thorougly burnt as to crumble to 
dust between the fingers. The abdominal viscera 
remained unconsumed. One of the sleepers which 
lay under the shoulders was burnt almost through ; 
part of the head lay on the planks at the edge 
of the hole, and near it was a candlestick, with 
part of a candle in it, thrown down, but it did 
not appear to have touched any part of the body, 
or to have set any thing on fire. The tallow 
was melted off the wick, which remained un 
scorched by the fire, as also a screen which was 
standing near, and almost touched the hole. The 
leg of a rush-bottomed chair, and about half of the 
bottom, were burnt so far as they were within the 
compass of the hole in the floor, and no farther. 
The ceiling of the room, which was white- washed 
plaster, was as black as if covered with lamp- 
black, as also part of the wall and windows ; and 
the heat had been so great as to extract the turpen- 
tine from the boards and the wainscot. After all 
this the fire went entirely out, so that when the 
body was found, not a spark remained. (Guy's 
Forensic Medicine, p. 500.) 

A fisherman's wife, named Grace Pett, of the 
parish of St. Clement's, had been in the habit for 
13* 



298 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

several years of going down stairs every night, 
after she was half undressed, to smoke a pipe. She 
did this on the 9th of April, 1774. Her daughter, 
who occupied part of her bed, had fallen asleep, 
and did not miss her mother till she awoke early 
in the morning. Upon dressing herself, and going 
down stairs, she found her mother's body lying on 
the right side with her head against the grate, and 
extended over the hearth, with her legs on the 
deal floor, and appearing like a block of wood 
burning with a glowing fire without flame. Upon 
quenching the fire with two bowls of water, the 
neighbors, whom the cries of the daughter had 
brought in, were almost stifled with the smell. The 
trunk of the unfortunate woman was nearly con- 
sumed, and appeared like a heap of charcoal cov- 
ered with white ashes. The head, arms,, legs, and 
thighs, were also much burned. There was no fire 
whatever in the grate, and the candle was burned 
out in the socket of the candlestick, which stood 
by her. The clothes of a child on one side of her, 
and a paper screen on the other, were untouched ; 
and the deal floor was neither singed nor discol- 
ored. It was said that the woman had drank plen- 
tifully of gin over night, in welcoming a daughter 
who had recently returned from Gibraltar. (Op. 
cit., pp. 496-7 ; vide also Brewster's Natural Magic, 
pp. 324-5.) 

The following case was originally reported by 
Dr. Peter Schofield, of Upper Canada, and is 
quoted in Dr. Kott's Temperance Lectures, from 
which we now take it : The subject, says Dr. 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 299 

Schofield, was a "young man, about twenty-five 
years of age. He had been an habitual drinker 
for many years. I saw him about nine o'clock in 
the evening on which it happened ; he was then, 
as usual, not drunk, but fall of liquor. About 
eleven o'clock the same evening, I was called to 
see him. I found him literally roasted from the 
crown of his head to the soles of his feet. He was 
found in a blacksmith's shop, just across from 
where he had been. The owner, all of a sudden, 
discovered an extensive light in his shop, as though 
the whole building was in one general flame. He 
ran with the greatest precipitancy, and on throw- 
ing open the door, discovered a man standing 
erect in the midst of a widely extended silver- 
colored flame, bearing, as he described it, exactly 
the appearance of the wick of a burning candle, in 
the midst of its own flame. He seized him (the 
drunkard) by the shoulder, and jerked him to the 
door, upon which the flame was instantly extin- 
guished. There was no fire in the shop, neither was 
there any possibility of fire having been communi- 
cated to him from any external source. It was purely 
a case of spontaneous ignition. A general slough- 
ing soon came on, and his flesh was consumed or 
removed in the dressing, leaving the bones and a 
few of the larger blood-vessels ; the blood never- 
theless rallied round the heart, and maintained the 
vital spark until the thirteenth day, when he 
died, not only the most loathsome, ill-featured, 
and dreadful picture that was ever presented to 
human view ; but his shrieks, his cries, and his 



300 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

lamentations also were enough to rend a heart of 
adamant. He complained of no pain of body ; his 
flesh was gone. He said he was suffering the tor- 
ments of hell ; that he was j ust upon the threshold, 
and should soon enter its dismal caverns ; and in 
this frame of mind he gave up the ghost. Oh ! the 
death of a drunkard ! Well may it be said to beg- 
gar all description. I have seen other drunkards 
die, but never in a manner so awful and affecting." 
(Op. cit, p. 200.) 

The evidences before the medical world are too 
numerous and respectable to admit of a doubt 
that spontaneous combustion, the result of alcoholic 
drinking to excess, does occur, and probably much 
more frequently than is avowed or acknowledged 
by the friends of the sufferers. 

Should it be argued by the skeptic, who doubts 
or denies the possibility of spontaneous combus- 
tion ever taking place, that most, if not all the 
cases above recorded are said to have taken place 
at too great a distance to test the evidence upon 
which they rest, it may be answered that the case 
of Dr. Schofleld, occurring in Canada, does not 
come within the range of this demurrer ; yet the 
evidence upon which that case is recorded is 
equally satisfactory and conclusive as that of 
those said to have taken place in Europe, and its 
consequences even more awfully terrific. 

In addition to the three cases already related, the 
following schedule, for which we are also indebted 
to Dr. Nott, contains eighteen cases of spontaneous 
combustion. All but one of them have been taken 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 



301 



from the " Dictionnaire Medicine," a French work 
of high authority : 



1 

bjO 


2 

^lOirj to QO IS S) O >, m io 


« 
O 

c 
o 

3 
03 


Upon a chair. 
On the floor. 
Near bed on floor. 

Near chimney. 

On hearth. 

On a chair by the fire. 

On hearth. 
In bed. 

Same bed together. 
Floor. 

Floor, lived foui days. 
On a bench. 
Cured. 
Do. 
Chair. 


t 

c 
o 
•a 

5 



Spirits for three years. 

Camphorated spirits. 

Pint of rutn per day. 

Habitual. 

Brandy her only drink. 

Habitual. 

Do. 
Brandy for years. 
Habitual. 

Do. 
Wine and Cologne. 

Do. do. 

Brandy. 
Spirits. 


3 

o 

1 
i 


A lamp. 

Light aside of bed. 

A pipe. 

Afire. 

A fire on hearth. 

Foot stoves. 

A fire on hearth. 

A candle. 

Do. 
A pipe. 
A lamp. 

A candle. 
Foot stove. 


J, 

33 

■S 

C 

o 

1 


Part of skull and fingers. 
Skull, part of face and fingers. 
Thigh and one leg. 
A few bones. 
Skull and fingers. 
Part of head and limbs. 

Do. do. 
A black skeleton. 
Hand and foot and a few bones. 
Do. do. do. 
Skull and portion of skin. 
Right leg. 
Few parts of body. 
Right arm and skin of thigh. 
Complete. 

Hand and thigh only burnt. 
One finger only. 
Muscles of thighs. 


6 


1692 
1763 

1744 
1745 
1749 
1779 
1782 
1820 
1830 

1786 
1799 

1829 


g HMMfir)»t>oooiOHisntfi(Mohm 



302 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

Is alcohol a poison f In order to answer this 
question satisfactorily, it is necessary to define be- 
forehand what we mean by the term poison. The 
following is as good a definition as any we have 
seen : " A poison is any substance which, when 
applied to the body externally, or in any way intro- 
duced into the system, without acting mechani- 
cally, but by its own inherent qualities, is capable 
of destroying life." Now, is alcohol, when it has 
been introduced into the system, capable of destroy- 
ing life by its own inherent qualities ? To this 
question we must give an affirmative answer ; for 
numerous cases have occurred where sudden death 
has been produced by drinking a large quantity of 
ardent spirits ; nay, even within the personal know- 
ledge of most of us, cases of this sort have happened. 
Alcohol is, therefore, a poison. 

But an objector may say, that alcohol is a poison 
only when it is taken in large quantity, and that 
when taken in moderate quantity, it is harmless. 
But is it true that alcohol is harmless when used 
in moderation ? We think we have already abun- 
dantly shown that it is not harmless, that it slowly 
undermines the constitution and prostrates the 
vital powers. Is arsenic none the less a poison 
because, when taken in medicinal doses, it does not 
produce death? Must we say that the sulphate 
and acetate of copper are not poisons, because a 
person can swallow a small quantity of them with- 
out being killed thereby ? 

The figure of antiquity which represented a vul 
ture tearing from the body the liver of Prometheus, 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 303 

while a fire was consuming his entrails, was doubt- 
less meant to show the effect of intoxicating drinks 
on that important viscus. Among all the vital 
organs, there is none so susceptible of the physical 
effects 'of alcohol as this. Inflammation, indura- 
tion, cancer, decay, loss of substance, are some 
among the many deplorable consequences of in- 
temperance on the liver. Mr. Fyfe, an eminent 
anatomist and surgeon at Edinburgh, Scotland, 
found the liver of an inebriate, upon a post-mor- 
tem examination, to weigh fifty pounds ! 

What must have been the deformity occasioned ; 
what the effect of such an enormous morbid mass 
pressing on the other organs of vitality ? Imagina- 
tion loses her power in the awful contemplation. 

Intemperance predisposes the system for the 
reception of any and every disease— whether con- 
tagious or not — that flesh is heir to. We contend 
that the primary seat of disease is in the nerves, 
and that if they be deprived of their power, from 
whatever cause, the system is fully exposed to 
attacks from within or without. 

Who were the principal victims to the cholera ? 
Among whom has the malignant, typhoid ship 
fever principally prevailed ? 

Let the tombs which inclose the silent remains 
of ebriety answer the questions ; the wailings of the 
widow and the fatherless bear record to the truth 
of the reply. 

We have detailed the effects of alcohol on the 
system separately, in order to make them more 
clearly perceptible. They are, however, more 



804 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

usually combined, and then — but we pause for a 
moment on the threshold of human deformity, ere 
we lift the veil which conceals the withering rem- 
nants of her shipwrecked, mutilated victims. 

Who is that tottering along, as if in the decrepi- 
tude of age ; his countenance sallow ; his cheek 
sunk and hollow ; his voice like the echoes of the 
sepulchre ; his arm trembling as if just recovering 
from paralysis; his extremities scarcely able to 
bear the weight of the feeble frame which demands 
their support ; a countenance exhibiting the rapid 
decay of a once mighty intellect ; an eye staring 
?vith an idiot-like gaze on vacancy, and a frame 
bending to that earth which must soon receive all 
that it possesses of mortality ? The gay, the young, 
the accomplished Lothario, who revelled in the halls 
of folly, drank deeply of the midnight bowl, re- 
jected the frequent warnings and admonition of 
nature, spurned her edicts, disobeyed her laws, 
and must suffer the penalties she inflicts — the 
inebriate. 

It would be well, at least less deplorable, were 
the diseases engendered or called into action by 
the use of alcohol, confined to the intemperate 
himself. If through successive generations, in a 
moral sense, the iniquities of one race are visited 
on another ; in a physical sense, the fact is strik- 
ingly exemplified in the posterity of the drunkard. 
Scrofula, insanity, predisposition to consumption, 
imbecility, are not the least among the evils that 
the drunkard may entail on coming generations. 

Is the love of alcohol a natural taste? It is 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 305 

completely artificial. The first draught from the 
alcoholic cup is disgusting; it is only by continued 
repetition, and its exciting action on the stomach 
and the brain, that at length it becomes pleasur- 
able. There are drinkers, and hard drinkers too, 
to whom spirituous potations, in taste, are ever dis- 
gusting ; but the laugh or the jeer of a convivial 
companion is worse to them than the natural dis- 
gust which they feel to the draught, or the pros- 
pective destruction of health. Shocking indeci- 
sion, miserable morality ! But what are the phy- 
sical sufferings to the individual, compared to those 
inflicted on society from this deplorable failing ? 
Enter for a moment into the dwelling which con- 
tains the wife and children of the drunkard; see 
them turned on the cold and cheerless charities of 
the world, or crying around the agonized mother 
for the bread which she cannot give them. They 
sink into slumber from the mere exhaustion of 
nature, the bare floor for their bed, the ceiling for 
their covering. The fond parent gazes on her 
faint and sleeping offspring; the chords of her 
affections, stretched to their utmost point, ready to 
disfranchise the spirit from its earthly tabernacle, 
still bind her to the cherished pledges of her fond 
affections. She confides them to the care of 
Heaven, and prepares herself to watch through the 
livelong night for the return of him to whom, in 
the depth of degradation, she yet clings, in the 
hope of a moral regeneration. Perhaps, far past 
the midnight hour, he returns, but what a spectacle 
for the wife and mother ! Horror is depicted on 



306 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

his countenance ; he flies as if pursued by a demon, 
retires in agony to some corner of the room, 
dreading the imaginary phantom that pursues 
him ; he looks wildly around ; clings, in his hor- 
rific imaginings, to the weak frame of the being 
whose happiness he has shipwrecked, for protec- 
tion ; shrinks within himself under the total paral- 
ysis of feeling; with fixed gaze stares on vacuity, 
and becomes a mental blot, if not a blank, in crea- 
tion. Sleep, the refuge of the weary, to him is 
denied ; the nerves of muscular motion alone re- 
tain some small degree of functional power, as may 
be observed in the twitchings of the extremities ; 
those of intellect are suspended, if not destroyed. 
Such is the victim of delirium tremens, whose 
earthly career is terminated by spasmodic convul- 
sions beyond description, or whose strength slowly 
returns to prepare for a similar conflict. 

Cases there are too numerous amongst us, in 
which the inebriate, smarting under the visitations 
of that still, small voice that dissipation has not 
completely hushed, with a mind too weak to bear 
the stings of just self-reproach, hurries from the 
bottle to the gaming table. He plays, reckless of 
the stake, and loses it ; hazards another, and loses 
all. Maddened at the result, he rushes from the 
den of infamy, approaches the door of his dwelling, 
but does not enter ; seeks again the intoxicating 
bowl in some low, miserable, depraved abode of 
licentiousness ; finally loses every feeling of self- 
respect, and becomes a disgusting, loathsome, 
abandoned drunkard. 



INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 307 

The cry of midnight murder breaks in on the 
silence and repose of night ; scream succeeding 
scream is borne on the winds to our dwellings ! 
Our police records tell the morning tale: the 
drunkard has become the assassin ; the body of 
his bleeding victim — perhaps the wife of his bo 
som — is awaiting the result of an inquest which 
may cause the maddened murderer to expiate his 
crime on the gallows, or consign him, for life, to 
a State's prison. 

Murder, manslaughter, suicide, are frequently 
the immediate effects of drunkenness. Grambling 
and theft are legitimately connected with it. De- 
pravity of every kind, from the most revolting 
crimes committed at the " Five Points," to the 
more fashionable vices which undermine the fabric 
of society, owes its existence to the drunkard's 
bowl. 

To apply a remedy to an evil which extends 
through every grade of society ; which unblush 
ingly stalks forth at noonday, supported by wealth 
and clothed in poverty ; for the criminal effect of 
which the culprit is punished by the judge, who, 
himself, freely indulges in the temptation ; which 
debases humanity, destroys intellect, undermines 
the moral energies of a people and the physical 
condition of the unborn future, seems to present a 
moral and political problem not easy of solution. 

While no inconsiderable part of our city reve- 
nues are derived from licensing the retail marts of 
destruction, where alcohol — pure, and drugged to 
excess by vegetable poisonous narcotics, as hen- 



308 INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL. 

bane, tobacco, cocculus indicus, or bayberries, prus* 
sic acid, opium, and other vegetable narcotics — 
is sold ; while a grocery store, licensed to sell the 
stimulating draught, stares us in the face at every 
corner of our streets ; while the rapacity for politi- 
cal influence controls the licensing of the most 
degraded hovels of humanity in which alcohol is 
retailed ; while the power to propagate the evil to 
its most minute ramifications can be purchased 
from our municipal authorities to enrich the trea- 
suries of our cities and counties, »very moral in- 
fluence which can be exerted against the degrad- 
ing vice of drunkenness must necessarily be 
limited. 

An inebriate commits murder ; is tried for the 
act, condemned, and executed. The law does not 
admit the crime of drunkenness to palliate that of 
murder : the deed has been committed, the penalty 
must be paid. 

We dissent from believing in the righteousness 
of such a judgment. Where, we ask, is the moral, 
civil, or political justice of that law which visits 
the last sanguinary punishment on the criminal, 
and legalizes the sale of that which excites to the 
commission of the crime ? Let the framers and 
administrators of our criminal laws answer the 
question. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
Hffects of STofcaccQ on tfje ^untau System. 

Pernicious Effect on the Nervous System — Acts Directly on the Nerves of the 
Stomach — Loss of Muscular Power — Case depicting the Effects of Tobacco 
— Amaurosis (Dimness of Sight) caused by Tobacco— Dr. Chapman on the 
Effect of Tobacco— Effects of Tobacco Injections— Snuff Plasters for Chil- 
dren — Great Danger in their Use — Tobacco Equally Injurious to the Stomach, 
Heart, Lungs, Brain, and Nervous System generally. 

We know not of any stimulant and sedative 
which exerts a more pernicious effect on the ner- 
vous system generally, and particularly on the 
organic nerves of the stomach, than that which 
lends its name to this chapter. 

It is a singular circumstance, that might be sup 
posed to weigh powerfully against the almost uni- 
versal use of this narcotic herb, in smoking and 
chewing, that the first attempts to use it are at- 
tended with feelings of the most ineffable disgust ; 
that the tyro in a practice " more honored in the 
breach than the observance," resolves and re-re- 
solves to shun a habit the first approaches to which 
are marked with nausea and the most debilitating 
symptoms, as cold sweats, faintings and vomitings. 
But unfortunately, as in the case of all other stim- 
ulants, the primary effects wear off as the organ 
becomes accustomed to the stimulus, and the de- 
structive habit, after a few feeble subsequent res- 



310 EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 

orations have been broken, becomes at length 
confirmed. 

We know that this herb acts directly on the 
nerves of the stomach, and throngh them on the 
whole nervous system ; that, administered in the 
form of an injection, it prostrates nervous and 
muscular power, producing on all occasions faint- 
ings, and in some immediate death ; that it causes 
loss of appetite, indigestion, stupor, and all those 
conditions produced by the action of vegetable 
narcotic poisons on the nervous system. 

Loss of muscular power is the inevitable result 
of intense chewing or smoking of this herb. To 
those predisposed to consumption, the ptyalism 
which it produces hurries on the disease. 

We are acquainted with a gentleman who some 
years since appeared to be wasting away without 
any specific disease : his evenings were pleasant and 
gay, his conversation instructive and enlivening, 
and his general appearance, save a shrinking of 
the muscles and a cadaverous hue of countenance, 
that of a man in health ; but the morning found 
him listless and inactive, the tongue furred, the 
hands hot, the pulse fluttering, weak and acceler- 
ated — we may add, with a general prostration of 
the vital functions. . 

His friends became alarmed, physicians of emi 
nence were consulted : by some he was pronounced 
to be in a rapid consumption ; others were of the 
opinion that the disease lay in the liver ; while a third 
declared it to be a peculiar species of neuralgia. In 
conversing with him one evening on the distinct 



EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 311 

peculiarities of his evening and morning sensations, 
we inquired if he ate suppers. No, was the direct 
reply. We then further inquired if any alcoholic 
stimulus was taken in the evening. Nothing 
stronger than cider, and only one glass of that, 
was the answer. Our friend was at the time 
smoking. It immediately occurred to us that 
the numberless and various symptoms presented, 
which seemed to baffle all attempts at a correct 
diagnosis, might arise from the effects of tobacco 
on the nervo-muscular system, and through it on 
the organic vital functions. Upon asking how 
many' cigars he smoked per day in addition to 
constant chewing, we were answered, "About eight 
or nine." 

We had now no doubt of the cause of his 
disease : it stared us in the face. 

We advised him to abstain gradually from the 
entire use of tobacco, and he would regain his 
health. Our advice was followed : he is now, after 
a lapse of thirteen years, in the possession of 
robust health, and a physical frame equal to that 
of any man of equal stature, a good appetite, an 
overflow of natural spirits ; and morning finds him 
in the enjoyment of that health with which he 
retired to rest on the preceding evening. 

Says Dr. Prout, in his book on " Diseases of the 
Stomach and Urinary Organs" : "There is an article 
much used in various ways, though not as an ali- 
ment, the deleterious effects of which on the assim- 
ilating organs, etc., require to be briefly noticed, 
viz.: Tobacco. Although" confessedly one of the 



312 EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 

most virulent poisons in nature, yet such is the 
fascinating influence of this noxious weed, that 
mankind resort to it in every mode they can de- 
vise, to insure its stupefying and pernicious agency. 
Tobacco disorders the assimilating functions in 
general, but particularly, as I believe, the assimi- 
lation of the saccharine principle. I have never, 
indeed, been able to trace the development of 
oxalic acid to the use of tobacco ; but that some 
analogous and equally poisonous principle (proba- 
bly of an acid nature) is generated in certain 
individuals by its abuse, is evident from their 
cachectic looks, and from the dark, and often 
greenish-yellow tint of their blood. The severe 
and peculiar dyspeptic symptoms sometimes pro- 
duced by inveterate snuff- taking are well known ; 
and I have more than once seen such cases termi- 
nate fatally, with malignant disease of the stomach 
and liver. Great smokers, also, especially those 
who employ short pipes and cigars, are said to be 
liable to cancerous affections of the lips. But it 
happens with tobacco, as with deleterious articles 
of diet: the strong and healthy suffer compara- 
tively little, while the weak and predisposed to 
disease fall victims to its poisonous operation. 
Surely, if the dictates of reason were allowed to 
prevail, an article so injurious to the health, and 
so offensive in all its forms and modes of employ- 
ment, would speedily be banished from common 
use." (Op. cit. pp. 42-3.) 

Druitt (Principles of Modern Surgery, p. 353) 
says: "Amaurosis is liable to be induced by cer- 



EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 318 

tain narcotico-acrid poisons, such as belladonna, 
and especially by tobacco, whether administered 
in poisononsly large doses by accident, or used 
slowly and frequently in the form of snuff or 
smoke." 

Dr. Chapman, of Philadelphia, has met with 
several instances of mental disorder, closely re- 
sembling delirium tremens, which resulted from 
the excessive use of tobacco, and which subsided 
in a few days after it had been abandoned. 

The debilitating effects of tobacco on the nervo- 
muscular system, the complete exhaustion in the 
former and relaxation in the latter, which it pro- 
duces, are in no cases more fully displayed than 
where used to reduce muscular rigidity in cases of 
hernia or rupture. 

As a last resort previously to a surgical opera- 
tion, when every other means have been exerted 
to replace the strangulated bowel, tobacco injec- 
tions are given : the patient faints from the destruc- 
tion of vitalizing power in the nervous system, a 
general relaxation of the muscles takes place, and 
at times the protruding bowel is returned through 
the muscles which have contracted upon it, with 
scarcely a visible effort on the part of the operator. 

It is not an uncommon practice, particularly in 
country places, and among those who seldom call 
in medical advice, to resort to those curative means, 
in disease, which have been handed down as heir- 
looms through generations, by some one, probably 
a female branch of the family, who possessed, or 

supposed she possessed, a superior knowledge of 
14 



314 EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 

the medical art. Among these is that of applying 
snuff plasters to the stomach of children in the 
hooping cough, croup, and similar diseases, in order 
to produce vomiting : the plaster is prepared by 
spreading tallow on a rag, and sprinkling it over 
with Scotch snuff; the plaster so formed is laid on 
the stomach ; within ten minutes, the countenance 
of the child assumes a pallid hue, the most dread- 
ful nervous and muscular prostration follows, and 
vomiting ensues. So powerful is the influence of 
tobacco in this form, even when applied exter- 
nally, on the nerves of sensation which lie on the 
surface, that it is immediately carried to those of 
muscular motion, and would, if not removed, pro- 
duce death. 

The treatment is attended with great danger, 
especially if the child is not very closely watched. 

If the effects of this narcotic herb are thus pow 
erful on the stomach, they are equally so and 
more injurious on the heart and lungs : in the 
former, by their action on the nerves supplied from 
the spinal cord and the great sympathetic, the 
most violent palpitations are produced, and by 
sympathy, the most feeble and difficult respiration 
in the lungs. Tobacco, like alcohol, is also an intoxi- 
cant in whatever form it is taken ; it creates thirst, 
and is thus apt to lead to the use of alcoholic 
drinks ; it has a benumbing, withering effect on 
the intellectual powers ; it demoralizes the feel- 
ings ; and the habit of taking it, especially by 
chewing, is at best dirty and idle. It should be 
used only as a drug — not indulged in as a luxury. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

influence of i&tntr ober fatter, tit tfje ^rotructton an& 
dure of JBtsease, 

Mysteiious but Visible Effects of Mind on Matter — Of the Essence of Mind 
Nothing is Known — The Connection between Mind and Matter established 
in this Chapter— The Blood the Primary Conductor— Iron one of the Con- 
stituents of the Blood— One of the most Powerful Conductors of Electricity 
— Nerves in Close Connection with the Arteries— It is from the Brain the 
Heart and Lungs receive their Motion— Electricity inhaled with the Oxygen 
that Causes the Blood to Circulate— Physiological Evidence of this Fact- 
Medical Profession too apt to Look on Proximate Causes— Empiricism Ex- 
posed—Oxygen and Electricity the only Purifiers of the Blood— The Nerves 
and not the Blood, the Primary Seats of Disease— Sudden Anger will Pro- 
duce Apoplexy and Death — Cause — Subjects most Likely for Insanity — 
Cases— Consequences of Unpleasant News on the Mind— The Advocates for 
the Old Theory of Disease— The Cause, in its diminished Influence, which 
produces Insanity — Degrees of Pain arising from different States of Electricity 
—Man but the Reflected Image of Nature— Effects of a Sudden Gust of 
Night Air — Percentage of Electricity iu the Nervous System— Fifty per cent. 
under Mental Control — Fifty per cent, under the Control of the Involuntary 
Nerves— Sudden Effects on the Brain from Increased Electricity on the 
Arrival of Alarming News— Cases— Causes— Operations on the Production 
of Disease having their Origin in Mental Impressions— Cases— Influence of 
the Mind over the Body — Imagination may Form the Natural Disposition, 
either for Good or Evil— Case Related by the Late Rev. Dr. Rudd, of 
Utica— Effects of Imagination on Physical Formation. 

"We now approach the consideration of the 
mysterious, but not less visible effects of mind 
on matter, and the inquiry whether electricity is 
not the connecting agent between emotion and 
certain states of animal condition in disease. 

Of the essence of mind we have previously 
expressed our ignorance, and a desire to avoid 



316 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

entering on a fruitless analysis of that mysterious 
principle which shed its intellectual light on the 
dwellers in Eden, has accompanied the succeeding 
generations of humanity, and will outlive, in a 
purer condition, in another and better state of 
being, the last tottering vital frame that lingers 
on the verge of a material world. 

That there is a connection between mind and 
matter, that the former influences the latter in the 
same individual; that the embryo, ere it bursts 
into existence, is influenced by any'sudden mental 
shock received by its maternal parent ; that physi- 
cal, unmistakable signs of such shocks have existed 
and do exist, we shall establish in this chapter. 

We know not of any agent capable of effecting 
the connection to which we have alluded, other 
than that of electricity. 

In a former chapter we have established the 
similarity in production and effect, between the 
nervous and the electric current. In the connec- 
tion which establishes the power of mind over 
matter, we are inclined to believe the blood is the 
primary conductor, more especially that portion 
of it which passes from the lungs to the left cham- 
ber of the heart, termed arterial 

In reference to the conditions of electricity, the 
arterial may be called the positive, the venous the 
negative blood. Chemistry by her analysis has 
long since declared that iron is one of the constit- 
uents of the circulating fluid ; and natural philos- 
ophy has demonstrated that this metal is a power- 
ful conductor of electricity. 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 317 

In speaking of the nerves, we said that many 
of them were in close connection with the arteries; 
large nervous plexuses or webs covering some of 
the more important among the blood-vessels. 

If iron be a conductor of electricity and an 
element of. the arterial fluid, if the nerves entwine 
around the canals which convey the former to the 
utmost ramifications of the system, why may not 
the blood receive its electricity from the atmo- 
sphere as it passes through the lungs, and in this 
new condition, as it winds along the arterial sys- 
tem, discharge its electricity into the nerves of 
involuntary motion by which the latter is sur- 
rounded ? 

It is from the base of the brain, the cerebellum 
and the medulla oblongata, that the heart and 
lungs receive their motion, the fountains of organic 
life and involuntary motion. It is the involun 
tary nerves issuing from these two divisions of a 
great centre, that cause the heart to pulsate and 
the lungs to contract and expand. 

It is the electricity inhaled from the atmosphere 
at each inspiration of the latter organs, that causes 
the blood to circulate through its canals, and ex- 
cites the nervous power of the brain. 

That the involuntary nerves at the base of the 
brain cause the heart to throb and the lungs to 
expand and contract, and yet do not carry on the 
circulation, may appear paradoxical, but is sus- 
ceptible of physiological proof. 

.If the spinal cord is divided below the region of 
the heart and lungs, the extremities and other 



318 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

parts below the section are paralyzed : they may 
be broken in pieces, bnt no pain will be experi 
enced ; yet the blood flows through them with its 
usual velocity. What more conclusive proof can 
be offered that the circulation is not dependent on 
any invested power at the base of the brain ? If 
it were so, the current would stop when the spinal 
cord was divided, as the nerves which supply the 
extremities below the section are cut off from any 
influence of the cerebellum or medulla oblongata. 

If the spinal cord be divided above the heart 
and lungs, both organs will become immediately 
paralyzed ; yet the last air received into the lungs 
having communicated its electricity to the blood, 
the current of the latter will be carried on after 
the paralysis, nor cease until it returns to the right 
chamber of the heart. 

We are here furnished with irrefutable evidence 
that the heart and lungs are obedient to the ner- 
vous action of the cerebellum and medulla oblon- 
gata, and that the blood is dependent for its 
circulation on the electricity contained in the at- 
mospheric air which is inhaled into the lungs. 
The electric fluid carried along the nervous system 
reaches the anterior lobe of the brain, exciting 
the intellectual functions. 

If, as we have before stated, the electric fluid 
stimulates the nervous system, which latter reacts 
upon the muscular circulating and respiratory 
functions, freedom from disease will be in a great 
measure dependent on the quantity of electricity 
contained in the system. When equalized, the 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 319 

result will be health; when deranged and dis- 
turbed, the natural result will be disease. The 
degree of the latter will be virulent or the reverse 
m the ratio in which the electric agent is disturbed 
or diminished. 

The medical profession have hitherto been too 
prone to look on the proximate instead of the 
remote cause of disease ; to watch the pulsations 
at the wrist and the movements of the circulating 
fluid as indexes to all diseases in the system or to 
which it is liable : hence the empirical phraseology, 
" The blood is the source of disease," " The blood is 
the life," " Purify the blood if you would enjoy 
health; purge the system that all impure matter 
may be removed from the blood," placarded in 
large letters to catch the unwary, at every corner 
of our city, (New- York,) and the still more fatal 
nostrums of which the above are but the signifi- 
cant heralds. 

This farrago of empiricism has no foundation 
in physiological truth : the blood, in itself, has no 
impurities. 

It can only be rendered impure by a disturbed 
circulation, and the latter would be dependent on 
the greater or less admixture of the electric fluid 
imparted to it in its passage through the lungs. 

Oxygen and electricity are the purifiers of the 
blood : the whole of the vital fluid passes through 
the lungs every few minutes ; if any thing arrests 
its progress so that it cannot reach the lungs, it is 
necessarily rendered impure from the want of those 
aerial elements upon which its purity is dependent, 



320 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVEK MATTEK. 

and will in that case produce inflammation, and 
finally ulceration and corruption. 

If our theory is correct, the nerves, and not the 
blood, are the primary seats of disease, the causes 
of such disease being a derangement in the elec- 
tricity of the system. Philosophy is sometimes 
obscured in an array of words differing in their 
literal construction, but meaning the same thing : 
the schools are willing to admit the principle if they 
are suffered to baptize it in their own nomencla- 
ture. Thus the metaphysicians assigned to what 
has lately been called the vital principle, the terms 
vis medicatrix naturae, vis vitas, vis insita, &c, as 
if a change in phraseology could alter a fixed 
principle. "We hold the vital principle to be elec- 
tricity, an element of the system without which it 
would perish and decay ; the purifier of the blood, 
the great agent in imparting healthy action to the 
functions of organic life.* If the want of a proper 

* A very intelligent friend of ours yesterday related the fol 
lowing circumstance : "I hare always," said he, "when oppor 
tunity offered, presented myself to mesmerizers or psychologists 
for experiment, but they have never yet succeeded in making 
any impression upon me. The following occurrence seems to 
present a reason for these repeated failures. Some time since, 
within two years, a legal friend of mine in the country was 
attacked with hemiplegia or palsy on one side : the face was 
greatly distorted. 

"Being one day in company with him when the facial muscles 
seemed much agitated, I related to him, in the attempt to divert 
his mind from a subject to him truly painful, the fact to which I 
have adverted, that mesmerism or animal magnetism had no 
effect on me. 'It may arise,' replied he, 'from your system 
always being in a highly positive state ; you may be fully 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVEE MATTER. 321 

degree of electricity in the system be the cause of 
disease, and this subtle agent pervades every por- 
tion of the nervous system, the nerves of intellect 
in the brain proper and those of respiration and 
muscular motion in the medulla oblongata, the 
cerebellum and the spinal cord, it must of course 
be apparent that mental impressions will through its 
agency produce disease. 

We know that sudden and violent paroxysms 
of anger will produce apoplexy and death : these 
fatal effects are produced by pressure on the brain, 
pressure of blood. The violent action of the brain 
concentrates the electric fluid from every part of 
the system on that sensitive and delicate organ ; 
the blood follows it, the vessels of. the head are 
surcharged with the circulating fluid ; they press 
on its delicate texture, or the circulation becomes 
impeded from the vast accumulation of the vital 
fluid ; congestion follows, and death closes the 
scene. In such a case as that to which we have 
alluded, the lower extremities will be found upon 
examination to be cold ; electricity and the blood 
have forsaken them. In all states of high nervous 

charged with the electric fluid, which would of course account 

for the failures to which you allude. But make a few passes 

over my face ; if I am right in my conjectures, you have power 

to relieve me.' 

" Totally unconscious of possessing such power, yet willing, 

if possible, to do any thing which might relieve the sufferer, 

bodily or mentally, I complied. He immediately exclaimed, 

' It is as I thought ; the shock of electricity is as great from you 

as I have frequently experienced in that from a Leyden jar, and 

it has verv considerablv relieved me.' " 
14* 



322 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

susceptibility, the extremities are invariably cold from 
the cause above named. 

Who compose the class of individuals most sub- 
ject to insanity in its various forms, and what are 
the causes and effects of this mental malady ? 

It is a common and j ust saying that fools (meaning 
persons of inferior "intellectual power) seldom go 
mad. It is men who can concentrate the nervous 
power of the brain on a single object ; who can look 
with an unblenching eye on the demon of ruin as 
he approaches them, or on the destroying angel as 
he passes his fatal wand over the land of promise 
and affection ; who can brood over the consequences 
of the ruin in the intensity of silence and suffer- 
ing ; who permit no scalding tear to relieve the 
mental concentration which sees nothing in its 
morning and evening visions but the image of the 
loved idol whom the hand of death has torn from 
its embrace ; it is such men as these, who betray 
no outward signs of emotion, until the brain 
awakes from a paralysis occasioned by the inten 
sity of its previous action, and reason has surren- 
dered her throne to the wanderings of intellect, 
that fill our public and private lunatic asylums. 

A melancholy illustration of the above physio- 
logical facts is recalled to our memory at this 
moment. A beautiful young girl, (Miss Y., of 
New-Brunswick, in New- Jersey,) some years since, 
was married to a young man of early promise, but 
who eventually became a drunkard. "When all 
other means of correction had failed, she returned 
to her mother's house, (her father was not living.) 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 323 

Enraged at not finding her on his return home 
late one night from a bacchanalian revel, the hus- 
band, maddened with drink, armed himself with a 
dagger and rushed wildly to the abode of his wife. 

She was engaged in conversation when he en- 
tered the room, with her back towards the door ; 
rushing towards her, he seized her flowing locks 
with his left hand, while with his right he plunged 
the fatal dagger in her bosom several times, and 
fled from the house. As the beautiful corpse lay 
weltering in her blood, her brother, a young man 
of high nervous temperament and large brain, (Mr. 
Y.) entered the room: the sight was enough; he 
at once, as if instinctively, knew the cause, and 
flying to the jail in which the murderer was se- 
cured, demanded admittance. It was necessarily 
refused. 

The victim was consigned to the tomb. The 
brother conversed but little: there was a fixed 
mental abstraction about him on which no words 
of kindness or consolation produced any effect ; 
by a slight inclination of the head he would recog- 
nize the intention of the speaker, then sink into 
the abyss of silence and thought. The tragedy 
occurred during the intensity of winter. 

Mr. Y. was missed one evening from the family 
circle ; the worst apprehensions were entertained. 
The river's banks were searched for his body, his 
friends and neighbors supposing he had committed 
suicide. After a search of several hours, a sug- 
gestion led the searching party to the grave of 
Miss Y., and there, with the cold wind of winter 



324 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

howling around him, the earth his footstool and 
the heavens for his only canopy, sat the brother, 
in silence, over the tomb which contained the re- 
mains of his earthly idolatry. His friends ap- 
proached; the cold had partially stiffened his 
limbs. He was addressed, but no sign of vocal 
recognition was returned : his gaze was fixed on 
vacuity, the head being slightly drawn backward 
as if his visual attention was fixed on the heavens. 
He was a maniac ! The concentration of electricity 
and nervous fluid on the brain had destroyed its 
function, Mind. 

The cause of insanity, in such cases as the above, 
does not arise in consequence of the system gen- 
erally being surcharged with blood or electricity, 
but upon their concentration on one part — the 
Brain. 

"We will suppose the mind gradually to have 
regained its wonted equilibrium : some sudden 
disaster, either the loss of fortune or of friends, 
occurs. What is the effect? The mind retires 
within itself; its manifestations, by which only we 
know its existence, are fled. It happens in some 
cases, where the news is of a terrific character, as 
the midnight assassination of some friend or rela- 
tive, on whom our affections had been concen- 
trated, or the sudden and total wreck of worldly 
fortune in the midst of supposed affluence, that 
the concentration of nervous and electric force on 
the brain becomes so excessive that its powers are 
deranged, its physical organization destroyed, and 
instantaneous death follows. 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 325 

If the electro-nervous power be great in the 
brain, and weak in any other of the vital organs, 
the effect of the passions and emotions we have 
above described would be seen on the organs where 
such power was deficient. 

We will take the liver to illustrate our position, 
and suppose that an emotion occasioned by some 
sudden and painful communication is carried by 
the electro-nervous fluid to the brain, but finds 
that organ sufficiently charged to resist further 
ingress : it now directs its path and its influences 
to the liver: the functions of that organ become 
disordered ; the gall bladder pours out an unusual 
quantity of bile, a great portion of which is taken 
up by the lacteals and other absorbents, and carried 
to the surface ; the skin becomes yellow, the bowels 
costive, the spirits depressed ; the patient is suffer- 
ing under jaundice. 

Applying the above reasoning to the brain and 
lungs, in a corresponding relative electro -nervous 
condition, the latter would become first irritated, 
subsequently inflamed, giving rise to tubercles, 
organic ulceration and death. 

Were the stomach in the situation of the liver 
and lungs above described, its blood-vessels would 
become suddenly gorged ; dyspepsia, the result 
of disturbed nervous action, would supervene, or 
irritation and inflammation, succeeded by congestion, 
perhaps death. 

There is no organ in the system which, in the 
negative state of electro-nervous power we have 
described, may not, by its sudden and superabun- 



326 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

dant increase, be thrown into that impaired de- 
rangement of function to which we apply the 
term disease. The spine, the kidneys, the heart, 
the spleen, the glandular system, the muscles, and 
even the bones, as in cases of softening, are sub 
ject to this law, which is universal both in its phys- 
ical and mental application. 

From what has been said, it is evident that 
mental impressions will produce physical disease, 
and that the intermediate agent which thus con- 
nects the cause with the effect, is electricity. 

We shall now examine the influence which 
physical impressions exert on nervous force. "We 
mean physical impressions from the external uni- 
verse. 

The advocates for the old theory of disease will 
not deny, with us, that mental and physical im- 
pressions are causes of disease ; but they argue 
that there are two causes, one afar off, the other 
near ; or, to use technical language, remote and 
proximate. We have already shown how the 
nervous power residing in the brain summons 
electricity from the distant nerves of the system, 
and produces the varied forms of insanity. There 
is only one proximate cause of disease, whether 
mental or physical : it is that caused by a disturb- 
ance of the proper distribution of the regular bal- 
ance of electricity in the system. This electrical 
force is in the nerves, not in the vital fluid: the 
former are in all cases, physical or mental, the 
primary seats of disease. 

The cause which produces insanity, in its dimin- 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 327 

ished influence gives rise to headache, and to any 
state of cerebral excitement. A corresponding 
cause, the derangement of the electro-nervous fluid, 
produces affections of the spine and hip, dyspepsia, 
liver disease, cholera, cholera morbus, cholera in- 
fantum, dysentery, pleurisy, etc. 

Electricity, when equally diffused through the 
system, produces the most perfect health ; when 
disturbed, disease, proportioned to the greater or 
lesser derangement. 

There are several degrees and kinds of pain 
proceeding from different states of electricity. A 
negative or diminished state of electricity existing 
in an organ, when increased by any sudden im- 
pression followed by an increase of blood, pro- 
duces pain followed by inflammation. A positive 
state of electricity, or that which repels the blood, 
causes pain equally severe, as in a powerful elec- 
tric shock given to the system, but no inflamma- 
tion ; a mixture of both the electric forces, posi- 
tive and negative, gives rise to a pricking, burning 
or tingling sensation, exceedingly unpleasant. 

Man is but the reflected image of external na- 
ture in her storms and her tempests, her calms 
and her sunshines. Her convulsions, if not the 
same in quantity, force and quality, are yet the 
same in kind as those to which humanity is subject : 
as the former arise from peculiar concentrations 
of electric force, which roll along the canopy of 
heaven or in the deep caverns of the earth, mental 
and bodily disease in man arise from the same 
cause, diminished only in degree. 



328 INFLUENCE OF HIND OYER MATTER. 

Among the causes which may disturb the bal- 
ance of the electro-nervous force necessary to sus- 
tain and regulate the functions of organic life, the 
absence of warmth or heat is one of the most 
powerful. In a cold moist atmosphere, the electric 
spark is evolved from the machine with great 
labor and difficulty. Cold is a repellant of elec 
tricky. By placing the foot in a cold damp place, 
the electric fluid may be driven from that limb to 
the brain, and in its final results, produce insanity ; 
it maybe sent to the lungs and give rise to inflam 
mation, suppuration, and subsequently to consumjp- 
ion. In all cases where the electro-nervous fluid 
is driven from the circumference, it concentrates on 
the weakest internal vital organ, and the blood follows 
it, producing disease and at times death. 

A sudden gust of the night air, acting on a per- 
spiring surface, frequently sends the electric fluid, 
followed by an increased flow of blood, on to the 
bronchial tubes and lungs of children, and that 
painful, rapid and devastating disease, croup, is 
the result. 

Alcohol increases the nervous action of the 
brain : the electricity of the system, in concentra- 
ting on that organ, carries the blood with it ; the 
nervous force of the brain becomes increased and 
deranged with that of the nerves, and "delirium 
tremens" succeeds. 

We thus see how mental and physical impres- 
sions derange the electricity of the system, and 
by destroying its just equilibrium, produce partial 
organic disease. 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 329 

If we calculate the whole electricity of the 
nerves at one hundred per cent., fifty per cent, of 
which is under the control of the mind, and be 
longs to the voluntary nerves and muscles, while 
the residue is under the control of the involuntary 
nerves which appertain to organic life, it needs no 
argument to prove that if the whole of the fifty 
per cent., which in its proper distribution would 
equally pervade every part of the system, were con 
centrated on any particular point of either, it would 
lestroy the organ placed at such point. 

Such is too frequently the case. Some sudden, 
alarming news reaches the seat of mind : the whole 
fifty per cent, of the electro-nervous fluid rushes 
towards the brain, followed by a column of blood 
from all parts of the system, and either apoplexy 
or death ensues. 

The mental impression, acting on the voluntary 
nervous force, would cause the mind to fall back 
on itself, and a state totally passive would succeed. 

The same fatal effect might be produced by ex- 
cessive eating or drinking, or any other external 
or internal physical impression acting on the invol- 
untary force, which is partially if not wholly inde- 
pendent of Mind. 

The following cases are presented as illustrating 
the influence of mental impression over mental 
and physical disease. The following was re- 
ported many years ago, of some Pittsfield medical 
students trying an odd sort of an experiment on a 
good-natured countryman. It appears that this 
man was in the habit of bringing fruit to the 



330 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVEK MATTER. 

college for sale on certain days of the week. One 
day, when within three miles of the town, he 
met a couple of students on the road. They 
stopped and bought some fruit. " Why, John," 
said one, "what is the matter with you? You 
look so queer about the eyes !" 

" Yes," said the other student, "I noticed that 
John looked uncommonly pale when I first saw 
him. Is there any thing the matter, my boy ?" 

"Well, I guess not," said John ; "I never felt 
better in my life." 

"You've been unwell, then, and got over it, per- 
haps?" suggested the first student. 

"Not in the least — I'm all right, and in some- 
thing of a hurry ; so, good bye ;" and John con- 
tinued his journey. 

About a mile further towards town, he met 
three more students, and the same scene was re- 
peated as with the first two. Poor John, not sus- 
pecting the plot, began to imagine that he was a 
little ill; so he replied, "I do feel queerish about 
the head." 

" I thought something was the matter," said one 
of the second party, " your eyes have such a lan- 
guid and singular look ; it is in my opinion the 
premonitory symptoms of an intermittent fever. 
If I were in your place I would abandon my jour- 
ney to town, go straight home and take a couple 
of blue pills." 

But John was determined to sell his fruit. ' ' No, " 
said he, "I think I'll be able to stand it till I sell 
out." 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVEE MATTEE. 331 

Just as lie entered the village he met, solitary 
and alone, a grave and sedate young man, whose 
term of study had nearly expired. This was a 
student for whom John had the greatest respect 
and consideration. He was different from his fel- 
lows, inasmuch as he never joined them in their 
numerous jollifications and sprees, but was con- 
stantly occupied with his books. When this young 
man began to talk to John about the singular 
appearance of his eyes, premonitory symptoms of 
fever, &c, he became really alarmed, and frankly 
acknowledged that he did feel unwell. However, 
he still persisted in his journey, saying he would 
start home within an hour. The sedate student 
advised him to turn back at once, as perhaps he 
might become seriously ill sooner than he expected. 
But John nevertheless continued his journey. Ar- 
riving in town, his fruit was sold off within an 
hour, the medical students and some of the town 
people crowding around his wagon, and buying 
freely. But each one took pains to repeat the 
same opinions relative to John's singular look 
about the eyes, and the probable cause thereof, 
viz., premonitory symptoms of an attack of fever. 

To shorten the story, we will add that, in less 
than two hours' time, poor John was put to bed 
in the tavern, and by nine o'clock at night he was 
really and truly in a raging fever. His illness was 
beyond doubt purely the effect of imagination; 
and it established a theory which had previously 
been in dispute between many of the old profes- 
sors of the college. 



832 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

Diseases having their origin in mental impres- 
sions, are produced by an increase of fifty per cent, 
in the voluntary nervous force ; those originating 
under external physical impressions, by fifty per 
cent, of involuntary force over which the mind has 
no control. The effect of these electro-nervous forces 
to a certain amount on a muscle, would give rise 
to pain : if increased, inflammation would ensue, 
and by still greater increase of force, mortification. 
A corresponding result would follow the applica- 
tion of these forces, graduated as above, on any of 
the organs in the system. 

The following cases are illustrative of this phys- 
iological fact. The first is related by Dr. J. K. 
Mitchell, a physician of some eminence in Phil 
adelphia, to his class last winter, while lecturing 
upon diseases of the heart : 

"In the early part of his medical career, Dr. 
M. accompanied as surgeon a packet that sailed 
between Liverpool and one of our Southern ports 
On the return voyage, soon after leaving Liver- 
pool, while the doctor and the captain of the 
vessel, a weather-beaten son of Neptune, but 
possessed of uncommon fine feelings and strong 
impulses, were conversing in the latter's state-room, 
the captain opened a large chest, and carefully 
took out a number of articles of various descrip 
tions, which he arranged upon a table. Dr. M., 
surprised at the array of costly jewels, ornaments, 
dresses, and all the varied paraphernalia of which 
ladies are naturally fond, inquired of the captain 
his object in having so manv valuable purchases. 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 333 

" The sailor, in reply, said that for seven or eight 
years he had been devotedly attached to a lady, to 
whom he had several times made proposals of 
marriage, but was as often rejected ; that her re- 
fusal to wed him, however, had only stimulated 
his love to greater exertion ; and that, finally, upon 
renewing his offer, declaring in the ardency of his 
passion that without her society life was not worth 
living, she consented to become his bride upon his 
return from his next voyage. He was so over- 
joyed at the prospect of a marriage from which, 
in the warmth of his feelings, he probably antici- 
pated more happiness than is generally allotted to 
mortals, that he spent all his ready money while 
in London for bridal gifts. After gazing at them 
fondly for some time, and remarking on them in 
turn, 'I think this will please Annie,' and 'I am 
sure she will like that,' he replaced them with the 
utmost care. This ceremony he repeated every 
day during the voyage, and the doctor often ob- 
served a tear glistening in his eye as he spoke of 
the pleasure he would have in presenting them to 
his affianced bride. 

" On reaching his destination, the captain arrayed 
himself with more than usual precision, and disem- 
barked as soon as possible to hasten to his love. 
As he was about to step into the carriage awaiting 
him, he was called aside by two gentlemen who 
desired to make a communication, the purport of 
which was that the lady had proved unfaithful to 
the trust reposed in her, and married another, 
with whom she had decamped shortly before. In- 



334 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

stantly the captain was observed to clap his hand 
to his breast, and fall heavily to the ground. He 
was taken up and conveyed to his room on the 
vessel. Dr. M. was immediately summoned, but 
before he reached the poor captain, he was dead. 
A post-mortem examination revealed the cause of 
his unfortunate decease. His heart was found lit- 
erally torn in twain ! The tremendous propulsion 
of the blood, consequent upon such a violent 
nervous shock, forced the powerful muscular tis- 
sues asunder, and life was at an end. The heart 
was broken." 

The second is that of the Eev. J. K Maffit, 
the celebrated Methodist preacher, whom many of 
our readers well remember. During his sojourn in 
the South some years since, and under great men- 
tal distress, while pacing the floor of his chamber, 
he exclaimed that his heart would break within 
him. He had no sooner ended the exclamatory 
sentence, than he fell prostrate on the floor and 
expired. A post-mortem examination proved the 
correctness of his feelings. His heart had literally 
hurst open! 

The following cases, which illustrate the influ- 
ence of mental cheerfulness on disease, and which 
should ever prompt us in the sick chamber to in- 
duce this state of mind, are given to show the 
controlling influence of mental impressions in a 
lesser degree. The first affords an instance of the 
power exerted by imagination in eradicating phys- 
ical disease : 

" A cure by the imagination has lately occurred 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OYER MATTER. 335 

in Germany. An old woman of the workhouse 
of Yeovil, who had long been a cripple, and made 
use of crutches, was strongly inclined to drink of 
the celebrated mineral waters of Baden, which 
she was assured would cure her lameness. The 
master of the workhouse procured her several 
bottles of water, which had such an effect, that 
she soon laid aside one crutch, and not long after 
the other. This was extolled as a most miraculous 
cure ; but the man protested to his friends that he 
had imposed upon her, and that he had got the 
water from an ordinary spring. As soon as the 
patient found out the deceit, she was very angry ; 
but nevertheless her cure was permanent." 

Another case of a similar character, was that of 
a lady in Bond street, who, having been ill for some 
time, had not slept for several nights. 

In order to allay irritation and induce sleep, it 
was considered advisable by her physician to pre- 
scribe morphine in the shape of pills : inserted in 
a teaspoonful of fruit jelly, they were placed at 
her mouth, accompanied with a tranquillizing as- 
surance that their administration would produce 
sleep. The patient, after taking her dose, laid 
down and slept soundly, when it was found out, 
by accident, that she had not taken the pills, that 
they had escaped from the jelly in which they had 
been placed, but that her faith in their curative 
effects had produced the wished-for sleep. 

A similar case occurred also under our ob- 
servation. While in the office of a dentist, a 
young man presented himself and requested to 



336 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

have a tooth extracted, desiring first to be placed 
under the influence of chloroform. A small quan- 
tity of the fluid .was given, when the patient soon 
lost all power over muscular motion or sensibility. 
In this quiescent and torpid state, the tooth was 
extracted. 

After recovering from the suspension of his 
vital functions and muscular powers, he arose from 
his seat and said that he felt it difficult to inhale 
chloroform that day, but would call the next day 
and have the tooth extracted. We need scarcely 
add, that when informed his tooth was out, he was 
very agreeably surprised. 

The influence of the mind over the body, and 
vice versa, has ever been acknowledged by the 
medical world, from the time of Hippocrates to 
the present hour. The request, " let him be kept per- 
fectly quiet" by the intelligent physician, to the 
attendant or attendants of his sick patient, is an 
illustration of this fact, and a tacit admission of 
the principle. The fact has not been doubted, but 
the modus operandi by which the connection was 
established has eluded inquiry, until electricity 
untied the Gordian knot of ages, and explained 
the philosophy of this seemingly mysterious oper- 
ation of nature. 

Not only does the imagination exert a curative 
influence in disease, but it may be made, in great 
measure, to form the natural disposition either for 
good or evil. The following case, communicated 
to us by the late estimable divine, the Eev. Dr. 
Rudd, of Utica, powerfully illustrates this position. 



INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 337 

A gentleman of some fortune residing at Au- 
burn, New- York, whose first child had been re 
markably fretful in its youth, determined to try 
. the effect of music on his second born, a little girl. 
A small organ of surpassing sweetness of tone 
was purchased, and the nurses (there were always 
two in attendance) were ordered never to suffer 
the child to fall asleep or to awake except under 
the influence of the tunes played by the organ. 
The injunction was strictly obeyed: the child, 
during the first years of its life, was never known 
to cry or be fretful; it awoke with a beam of 
pleasure irradiating its countenance, and sunk to 
sleep under the soothing influence of the organ's 
tones, with a calm and unruffled brow. Its gen- 
eral sweetness of disposition was equally remark- 
able with the cause and the energy which had 
produced it. 

We shall conclude this chapter by offering some 
arguments to prove that those spots frequently 
visible on the surface of the skin during infancy 
and maturer life, sometimes representing animals, 
at other times plants, &c, are produced by that 
electro-nervous fluid which is conveyed by the 
mother to her offspring during its foetal existence. 

It is much less difficult to decry than to refute 
a philosophical theory ; and while we are not with- 
out anticipations that the skeptic may laugh at 
what he pleasingly terms our credulity, and con- 
sole himself with the idea that the phrenological 
bump of marvellousness is smaller on his head 
than our own, we apprehend no philosophical or 
15 



338 INFLUENCE OF MIND OVER MATTER. 

physiological refutation of the arguments we 
shall adduce, to prove that the imagination of 
the mother, excited by external impressions, pro- 
duces the mark or marks to which we have ad- 
verted on the body of her unseen embryo. 

The might of power, the excellence and perfec- 
tion of form, the force and rapidity of action, 
have a preexistence in the brain, and can be com- 
municated by the electro -nervous fluid or force 
from the nervous system of the mother to that of 
the foetus, with as much ease as the magnetic tele- 
graph can impress the same signs and forms of 
letters at the distance of hundreds of miles : the 
ideal forms and lineaments of beauty exist within 
the sensorium, as do the horrific shadows which 
too often obscure the former. The natural forma- 
tions of the infant, its organic developments, are 
but the manifestations of the ideal forms to which 
we have alluded as having their seats in the brain ; 
they are the grosser materials fashioned and mould- 
ed by the superior spiritual existences of which 
they are the patterns. We might advance num- 
berless eases to support this theory in the beauties 
and deformities of the rising generation, in their 
habits, their intellects, their natural disposition, in 
similarity of feature, produced by long contempla- 
tion on some loved and cherished object, and in 
the deformities produced by beholding some muti- 
lated object of terror, of which the imagination 
cannot divest itself. The object of this work has 
however been accomplished in establishing the 
connection between mind and matter, generally. 



CHAPTER XX. 
ffluteral amrtr Vegetable poisons, antr tfjeir &ntttrotes. 

Mineral Poisons most Distressing— Emetics— Sulphate of Zinc most Rapid in 
its Operation— Infusions of Slippery Elm— Sal Volatile — Vinegar— Tartar 
Emetic Wine — Mucilaginous Drinks— Nut Galls and Oak Bark — Arsenic 
—Case of Mrs. Wood— Verdigris— Sugar of Lead— Sulphuric Acid its Anti- 
dote—Carbonate of Soda— Oxalic Acid— The Vegetable Poisons— Opium- 
Morphia, or Morphine— Stramonium, or Stink Weed— Two Cases of its 
Poisonous Effects on Children. 

Cases of poisoning, from accident or design, have 
become so alarmingly prevalent amongst us, that 
a few remarks on the mineral and vegetable poi- 
sons, with their antidotes, seemed essential to the 
completion of a work, the object of which is the 
promotion of health and its restoration, from what- 
ever cause the functions which constitute it may 
be deranged, when impaired. 

Of the two kinds of poison, those from the 
mineral kingdom are infinitely the most painful in 
their operation, producing the most distressing 
symptoms, and frequently, by their caustic power, 
eating into the coats of the stomach. 

The stomach pump, and in its absence, when 
specific antidotes are not previously indicated, 
emetics should be immediately resorted to when 
the fact is ascertained that poisons, either mineral 
or vegetable, have been taken by design or acci- 
dent. In the case of mineral poisons, the albu- 



340 MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 

men or whites of three or four eggs should bo 
immediately administered. We have known lie 
saved in several instances by this mild remedy: 
the mineral poison has united with the albumen, 
while the latter has preserved the coats of the 
stomach from the corroding influence of the poison 
until emetics could be procured and administered. 
The ejection of the poison from the stomach can 
alone yield a hope of safety. The sulphate of zinc 
(white vitriol, as it is called) is the most rapid in 
its operation : fifteen or twenty grains may be given 
immediately in a little cold water, and repeated in 
a few minutes, if copious vomiting is not induced. 
The wine of ipecacuanha, or that of antimony, is 
sometimes used. In the absence of the sulphate of 
zinc they should of course be tried ; but they are 
less favorable in their results than that rapid and 
powerful emetic. In cases where young children 
have taken poison, any emetic is preferable to anti- 
mony in the form of tartar emetic ; it prostrates 
nervous power so rapidly and completely, that 
great caution should be always observed in its 
administration among children. 

When vomiting has commenced, it should be 
aided by every means that can be tried : warm 
water should be taken in abundance, and repeated 
as frequently as ejected from the stomach, until we 
are assured that no particle of the fatal drug is left 
to devastate the coats of the stomach. 

Infusions of slippery elm, gum arabic muci- 
lage, flax-seed tea, or any thing of a diluent or 
mucilaginous nature, should be freely taken. 



MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 341 

Sal volatile, or water of ammonia, when taken in 
an undiluted state, as it sometimes is, by accident, 
acts as violent caustic poison on the stomach. 

Vinegar, which neutralizes the effects of the 
alkali, is its most effectual antidote, and should be 
administered in water without any loss of time. 
Emetics are unnecessary. 

Tartar emetic wine, known by the name of anti- 
monial wine, when taken in an over-dose as an 
emetic, acts as a poison on the stomach, and pro- 
duces the most distressing vomiting, attended by 
a prostration of nervous power that frequently 
threatens, sometimes destroys, life. 

Mucilaginous drinks, as above directed, should 
be resorted to, and the stomach be kept partially, if 
not wholly, filled so long as the vomiting continues : 
this latter caution is necessary to be observed, that 
the spasmodic efforts may be principally exerted 
on the contents of the stomach rather than the 
organ ; the violence of the efforts being such as, in 
some cases, to rupture the stomach, or to cause the 
rupture of some large blood-vessel in that organ 
or in the brain. To lessen the spasmodic contrac- 
tions of the organ by acting on the nerves which 
supply -it, twenty or thirty drops of laudanum 
should be administered, to an adult, every twenty 
minutes, until some visible effect is produced on 
the brain and nervous system generally. 

Nut-galls and oak bark, in infusion, are the anti- 
dotes ; but their use will seldom be required if the 
means above directed are steadily pursued. 

Arsenic, the most distressing and fatal of all the 



342 MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 

mineral poisons, producing rapid inflammation, 
intense thirst, and a state of suffering which can- 
not be expressed, is one of the most general poisons 
taken by the ignorant and reckless. The powerful 
corroding properties of this mineral poison, and 
the alarming rapidity with which it executes its 
deadly purposes, demand that not a moment 
should be lost subsequent on its entrance into the 
stomach before the most powerful counteracting 
remedies are resorted to. Whites" of eggs mixed 
with the hydra ted peroxide of iron should be imme- 
diately administered, followed by powerful and 
long-continued emetics. The stomach pump, when 
it can be procured, should instantly be passed into 
the stomach, and the latter emptied of its contents. 
After all, the hope of salvation is a forlorn one : 
the mineral has usually inserted itself, by corrosion, 
heneath the mucous coat of the stomach before any 
remedy can be effectually employed. 

In the case of a post-mortem examination which 
we attended in the upper part of the city, about 
two years since, performed on a Mrs. Wood, who 
had been poisoned by the admixture of arsenic 
with the cakes which had been prepared for her 
breakfast by her husband, for which he subse- 
quently suffered the extreme penalty of the law, 
the mineral had found its way from the stomach 
into the liver, although but a few hours had elapsed 
between the commission of the act and the post- 
mortem examination. We can account for this 
curious fact in no other way than by supposing 
that the arsenic had passed into the duodenum or 



MINEKAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 343 

lower stomach, and had there, daring the act of 
vomiting, been forced through the gall duct into 
the liver. 

Verdigris, or acetate of copper, is sometimes taken 
ia solution in soup, through carelessness in not 
cleaning the copper utensil in which the latter has 
been made. When taken in large doses it is 
quickly fatal ; producing, like arsenic, inflamma- 
tion and corrosion of the coats of the stomach, at- 
tended with excessive pain and continued thirst. 

Carbonate of soda, its most powerful antidote, 
should be immediately given on ascertaining the 
character of the poison, followed by emetics and 
mucilaginous drinks. 

Of the various preparations of lead, its acetate 
(sugar of lead) is most apt to be taken, frequently 
unintentionally, as a poison : it produces the most 
distressing colicky pains in the stomach and ab- 
domen. 

its most powerful antidote is sulphuric acid (oil 
of vitriol) dilated with water. Nearly all the sul- 
phates will answer the same purpose, if the acid can- 
not readily be procured, as the sulphate of mag- 
nesia, (Epsom salts,) or the sulphate of soda, 
(Glauber salts,) mixed with water. Emetics and 
mucilaginous drinks should also be administered. 

Corrosive sublimate, or oxymuriate of mercury, is a 
poison equally, if not more, distressing than arsenic, 
as rapid in its operation, and as sure in its fatal 
results. 

On ascertaining that this mineral poison has 
been taken, ten or twelve of the whites of eggs, 



344 MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 

beaten up in a pint of water, should be taken 
by tumblers fall as rapidly as possible, to induce 
vomiting : in the absence of eggs, soap and water 
mixed with flour may be given as a substitute. 
The object, the only one to be attained, is that of 
protecting the coats of the stomach from the cor- 
roding influences of the deadly mineral. The sto- 
mach pump should be introduced so soon as it 
can be obtained, and powerful emetics avoided. 

Nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, taken in an excessive 
dose, will produce all the symptoms attendant on 
the exhibition of more powerful poisons. 

Powerful emetics should not, in a case of poison- 
ing by this drug, be administered; the nervous 
irritation of the stomach is too great to bear further 
powerful excitement. Diluents and mucilaginous 
drinks maybe taken in large quantities until vom- 
iting is produced. 

If an over- dose of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) 
has by accident or otherwise been taken, it will 
act as a poison on the stomach. 

Carbonate or supercarbonate of soda is the 
antidote to this poison, and should immediately be 
administered, followed by emetics. The contents 
of the stomach should also be evacuated by the 
stomach pump, if it can be procured. 

The mineral acids are, as we have known, some- 
times swallowed by accident: among them the 
nitric (aqua fortis) is the most powerful and rapid in 
its effect, eating directly into +he coats of the stom- 
ach. Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) and muriatic acid 
(spirits of salts) are also sometimes taken by misto «■ p. 



MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 345 

The most powerful antidote to the above is cal- 
cined magnesia, which, if taken in sufficient quan- 
tity and immediately, will sometimes neutralize 
the effect of the acids in the stomach. When this 
drug is not at hand, carbonate of potash, (sal 
seratus,) or chalk mixed with water, should be 
given. The mucilaginous drinks will perhaps be 
the best vehicle in which to administer the above. 
Emetics should not be given. 

Oxalic acid, from its strong resemblance to Epsom 
salts, is not unfrequently accidentally and fatally 
taken into the stomach. A slight degree of caution 
might prevent such accidents. The taste of Epsom 
salts is exceedingly bitter, that of oxalic acid sour. 

The antidotes to this poison are carbonate of 
potash, (sal seratus,) chalk or lime, dissolved in 
mucilaginous drinks. The stomach pump should, 
without loss of time, be used after taking this 
poison. 

The ley formed by placing wood ashes in hot 
water is sometimes taken by children, and pro- 
duces poisonous effects on the stomach. 

Vinegar and oil&re the most sure antidotes. The 
oil unites with the ley and makes soap, which is 
less injurious than the former. Large draughts 
of flax-seed tea or slippery elm infusion should be 
administered. 

The vegetable poisons, if less rapid in their effects 
than some of those in the mineral kingdom, are 
usually not less sure in their fatal consequences : 
they are taken up by the absorbents of the sto- 
mach, pass into the circulation, and act immedi- 



346 MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 

ately on the brain and nervous system, generally 
producing intense drowsiness, loss of sight, insensi- 
bility to external impressions, coma and death. 

Opium, from its general use, can be more easily 
obtained without exciting suspicion than any other 
among the vegetable poisons, and is most fre- 
quently taken by those who commit suicide by 
poisoning. In large doses it produces an imme- 
diate shock of the nervous system, and, though 
nauseating in small doses, seldom produces vomit- 
ing when taken in such quantities as to produce 
poisonous effects, owing to the paralysis of the 
nervous system which it induces. 

The stomach pump should be directly applied 
after taking this drug in poisonous quantities ; 
emetics and vegetable acids, as vinegar and lemon 
j uice, should also freely be resorted to. The patient 
should be kept awake by every possible means 
which can be applied, such as being compelled to 
walk. about the room led by two persons, the cold 
douche, and by a smart stroke from the hand or 
a thin, flat piece of wood, occasionally. A very 
strong infusion of coffee is sometimes found useful 
in poisoning from opium. 

Morphia or morphine is opium in its most highly 
concentrated form, one grain of the former being 
equal to six of the latter, or to three hundred and 
sixty drops of laudanum. 

The means above recommended in poisoning 
from opium, should be resorted to when this drug 
has been taken to produce a like effect. From 
what we have observed it would seem that opium, 



MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS. 347 

in all its forms, exerts a powerful influence on the 
nerves of the medulla oblongata, as those of respira- 
tion : under the effects of this poison, whether in the 
form of morphia or laudanum, breathing quickly 
becomes laborious, and in a short time suspended; 
in the latter case artificial respiration should be 
kept up so long as the pulse can be felt at the 
wrist. 

Stramonium, thorn apple, stinkweed. This poison 
ous vegetable is more generally known by the last 
name than the two former. About two years since 
we were called in to a little boy in Twenty -fifth 
street, who, we were informed by the messenger 
sent, had suddenly Jost his senses. Upon entering 
the room where the little patient was, we were 
struck with astonishment at the symptoms which 
presented themselves : the eyes were bloodshot ; 
every vessel being tinged with blood, they had a 
peculiarly wild expression ; the lower extremities 
were completely paralyzed, the speech incoherent, 
the child raved continually. Fearing congestion 
of the brain, we immediately applied six leeches to 
the temples, but no relief followed ; injections were 
administered with like effect ; a universal agita- 
tion of the nervous and muscular systems now 
supervened, and certain dissolution appeared to 
be near at hand. A woman in the same house now 
entered the room, screaming wildly and terrifically ; 
her child, about the same age, had been similarly 
attacked. The simultaneousness of these attacks 
caused us to make more minute inquiry, when we 
found that both children had been out playing in 



34:8 MINERAL AND VEGETABLE POISONS, 

the vacant lots in the neighborhood. It was autumn, 
and the seed just ready to leave the seed-vessel of 
the stramonium. We now suspected what in the 
end proved correct, that the children had swallowed 
the seeds of the stramonium. Emetics of the sul- 
phate of zinc (white vitriol) were administered, and 
about a table spoonful of the seed ejected in each 
case. The children recovered by very slow degrees ; 
there seemed to be a continual tendency in them 
to convulsions ; the nervous system had been so 
completely deranged that it recovered its functional 
power with great difficulty. 

Hyosciamus, (henbane,) belladonna, (deadly night- 
shade,) aconite, (wolfsbane,) brionia, (bryony,) digi- 
talis, (fox-glove,) dulcamara, (bitter-sweet,) gam- 
boge, lobelia, (Indian tobacco,) sanguinaria, (blood- 
root, )oil of savin, spigelia, (Indian pink,) strychnine, 
nux vomica, tobacco, may be included in the list 
of vegetable poisons. The means recommended 
in cases of poisoning from opium are those best 
adapted to remove or neutralize all vegetable 
poisons. 

Spigelia, or Indian pink root, is frequently admin- 
istered to children in cases of worms. Its adminis- 
tration requires great caution : we have seen several 
cases in which the nervous system was paralyzed 
by the use of this vegetable drug. 



CHAPTEE XXL 
General Synopsis, 

In the preceding pages we have endeavored to 
build up a new and beautiful philosophy of health 
and disease, on the basis of Electricity : we have 
shown the former to be dependent on an equal dis- 
tribution of electric force to every portion of the 
system, and the latter to arise from a general dim- 
inution of such force, or from its concentration in 
any particular portion of the human frame to the 
prejudice of the rest. 

Amid the host of "pathies" and " catholicons" 
that have risen up in our day, each one, in the self- 
sufficient phraseology in which it is heralded be- 
fore the public, a certain cure for all diseases which 
exist in the present or by any possibility can arise 
in the future, it is a matter of some surprise that 
Electricity has not more generally engaged the 
attention of the medical profession. 

But the progress of truth is slow, more espe- 
cially so when the means which she presents for 
the accomplishment of a special or general object 
are simple and easy of attainment, or are opposed 
to the orthodoxy, however untenable, which has 
governed society for ages. 

When the great Bacon unfolded a new philoso- 



350 synopsis. 

phy built on the principles of induction, the truth 
of which has been proven in every succeeding age 
since the philosopher exclaimed at the termination 
of his labors and his life, " Inveniam viam, aut 
faciam," his views were assailed, his motives im- 
pugned, and his character traduced by the sense- 
less bigots of his day and generation. 

When Harvey declared the arteries to be blood- 
vessels and not air tubes, as supposed before, and 
during his time, the new doctrine was assailed by 
the would-be physiologists of the day, with that 
fury and malevolence to which ignorance united 
with the false philosophy of the past, and then 
present, could alone give rise. 

Scoffed at by the multitude, slandered by the 
more intelligent yet deeply interested few, the 
discoverer of the circulation of the blood was 
treated as a visionary enthusiast, whose temerity 
was only equalled by the folly which led him to 
differ from the "patres conscripti" of anatomy 
and physiology, and to introduce a new system on 
the ruins of that which had existed for ages — as 
venerable for its antiquity as he proved it to be 
false in its theory and facts. 

It was not sufficient to satisfy the credulity, or 
rather obstinacy, of the rulers in the medical san- 
hedrim of that day, that the great physiologist, 
taking up the pervious tissue in the leg of a frog, 
ocularly demonstrated, by showing the blood in its 
circulation through the arteries, that his system 
was correct; that he exposed the human heart 
throbbing within the chest and sending forth its 



SYNOPSIS. 351 

blood into the supposed air tubes, to the gaze and 
the touch of his monarch; that, like the doubting 
disciple of antiquity, the royal Charles was re- 
quested to put forth his hand, touch and believe : 
truth was considered valueless when placed in 
opposition to the opinions of the medical fathers 
of the day, who defended the altars around which 
they and their progenitors had worshipped, with 
a pertinacity and courage worthy of a better cause. 

The unfortunate Galileo was consigned to a 
dungeon for setting forth the truths of astronomy ; 
and when Jenner, a high priest in the temple of 
science and humanity, in a later age, discovered 
an antidote to a loathsome disease, the small-pox, 
in an ichor which exuded from the mammae of a 
cow, that the young girls employed in milking in 
Devonshire, England, were exempt from the dis- 
ease, that it could not be conveyed to them by 
contagion or infection, his name became a by- 
word and a reproach; scurrility, in every form, 
took occasion to assail him ; ribaldry, with her low 
and disgusting buffoonery, jeered at his discovery ; 
envy maligned his motives ; avarice sought the 
destruction of his pecuniary gains ; the medical 
profession placed him beyond the pale of her or- 
der. But the genius of humanity had thrown an 
impregnable shield before her meek disciple, which 
effectually shielded him from the darts sped by big- 
otry and malevolence from the concealed fortress 
of hatred and envy. 

Where now are the scoffers of Harvey — the 
assailants of Jenner? Time has thrown the veil 



352 synopsis. 

of oblivion and infamy over their memories ; their 
names have perished from her records. 

, Far otherwise with the philosophers they perse- 
cuted, whom they endeavored to crush beneath 
the weight of malignity, injustice and oppression: 
ihe latter reflect a lustre on the land of their nativ- 
ity, which increases in splendor with the lapse of 
ages, like the finished architecture of some gigan- 
tic Grecian temple, which becomes more beautiful 
as the eye recedes in the distance. 

The opposition to Electricity, as a means of cur- 
ing disease, has been less active than that described 
above ; she has found among her advocates and 
supporters, men of high professional attainments 
and superior intelligence. The prejudices which 
still surround her path and obstruct her onward 
progress, are rapidly disappearing before the weight 
of respectable testimony which she offers in sup- 
port of her claims, and must, eventually, cease to 
exist. 

In order to display the full effects of electricity 
in eradicating disease, and promoting a healthy 
condition in the functions of organic life, we have 
found it necessary to present a general outline of 
the systems in which the organs of these functions 
are placed. 

Throughout the work we have sought to avoid 
the use of technical expressions, and to explain 
them when used. 

In our description of the bones in the first chap- 
ter, we have not been unmindful of the impor- 
tance to be attached to the spinal column, or the 



synopsis. 353 

wise and peculiar adaptation of it by nature to the 
purposes for which it is intended ; nor, in a future 
chapter, of those abuses, the offspring of ignorance 
or error, by which its functions are so frequently 
rendered useless, sometimes entirely destroyed. 

In describing the anatomy of the muscles, their 
origin and uses, in the second chapter, we have 
anglicized their Latin names, for the benefit of the 
general reader; we have shown them to be the 
lever power by which the bones are lifted or pro- 
pelled in any direction ; their force being gradua- 
ted by peculiar physical and mechanical conditions 
to which we have alluded. It will be seen that, 
independently of their uses as the great agents of 
locomotion, they exert a controlling influence over 
the vocal powers of the singer and the elocutionist, 
and that they are divided into two great classes, 
voluntary and involuntary ; the former being under 
the influence of the will, the latter acting inde- 
pendently of it. 

In instituting a comparison between muscular 
power and celerity in man and some of the infe- 
rior animals, as the horse, carrier pigeon, &c, we 
have shown that a much greater perfection has 
been, instinctively, attained by the latter than has 
been bestowed upon the former; and while we 
have endeavored, by well authenticated instances 
of prodigious muscular power in man, to show 
what has been accomplished, we have not neg- 
lected to place before all our readers the means by 
which such feats may be equalled — probably ex- 
celled. 



354 synopsis. 

In describing that peculiar power of contractility 
which resides in the muscles for some short time 
after death, the reader will find cited some inter- 
esting cases of the effect produced on the nervo- 
muscular systems of criminals, after execution had 
taken place, by the application of the galvanic 
current to the nerves which controlled the muscles 
called into action. They terminate the third 
chapter. 

The fourth chapter, on the hygiene or healthful 
condition of the muscles, contains some interest- 
ing facts in relation to the training or physical 
education of the muscular system, in the Belgian 
giant and the Chinese and Turkish carriers. We 
have demonstrated that exercise increases muscular 
power ; that the latter also increases with the de- 
mands made upon it, within certain limits ; that 
activity and strength are the healthful elements of 
muscularity, and those upon which in its most 
perfect condition it is chiefly dependent. 

The reader will find in this chapter some very 
interesting remarks on the treatment of insanity, 
and the condition of its victims in the present day 
when contrasted with the past. 

The necessity of graduating the amount of ex- 
rcise to produce corresponding muscular strength 
\\ youth and maturity, has not in this chapter 
been overlooked. It has been shown that the 
amount of exercise necessary to produce a power- 
ful muscularity at maturity, would injure if not 
destroy the muscular powers in youth ; that mus- 
cular energy has, in all individuals, a maximum 



synopsis. 355 

which, if exceeded, produces exhaustion and loss 
of vital power. 

In our remarks on healthful muscularity in the 
rising generation, with which we conclude the 
fourth chapter, we have been constrained, from an 
imperious sense of public duty, to advert to some 
of the causes which impede its progress in our 
public and private schools, particularly in relation 
to the confinement of & fixed muscular attitude for 
any great length of time, and the want of mechan- 
ical support to the spine in the construction of the 
seats. 

We would again seriously impress on the minds 
of the trustees who govern and direct our public 
and ward schools, the necessity of enforcing an 
alteration in the mechanism of school benches 
generally, and of allowing more frequent change 
of muscular position, especially to the more juve- 
nile scholars, than is now permitted by the rules 
of the schools ; but we have said enough already 
in these pages on this important point, and would 
respectfully solicit the public guardians of our 
youth in the public institutions to which allusion 
iias been made, to peruse our observations with 
attention. 

We are aware, and the effort is an honor to its 
projectors, that some of our Ward schools have 
partially remedied the evil of which we complain ; 
we expected nothing less from the philanthropic 
and benevolent spirit which prompted these valu- 
able additions to our system of public instruction, 
and we feel assured that they will still further ad- 



356 synopsis. 

vance in satisfying the requisitions which the pro- 
gressive spirit of the age demands. 

In insisting on a fall supply of puke air as an 
essential to the vigorous growth and power of the 
muscles, in the fifth chapter, we have endeavored 
to draw the general attention of our citizens, par- 
ticularly the "Fathers" of the city, to the damp 
subterranean abodes where the beams of the sun 
cannot enter, where the elements of death reek on 
the dripping walls, where a vitiated atmosphere 
is breathed and re-breathed, where impurities of 
every kind, some of them most loathsome, meet to- 
gether, and encircle their victim beyond the possi- 
bility of escape ; where disease and death shake 
hands and reciprocate their mutual benefits, the 
interchange of which is the eternal silence of the 
tomb. 

"We cannot separate the moral from the political 
duties of mankind. If the politician requires the 
vote of his constituent to place him in a position 
which will advance his pecuniary interest, and 
may place him in one where he will be enabled to 
watch the physical condition of those by whom 
he has been advanced to power, morality, human- 
ity would teach and should enforce the necessity of 
applying at least a portion of that power to the 
best interests of those by whom it has been con- 
ferred. 

Wholesome food is not more essential to animal 
existence than pure air : the former is the suste- 
nance of the stomach, the latter the purifier of the 
juices expressed from such sustenance, as they 



synopsis. 357 

pass, commingle with and become a portion of tho 
blood, in its passage through the lungs. 

We should hail with pleasure a municipal la^w 
which would compel a house owner to have an 
uninhabited cellar at least six feet deep, under any 
room or rooms destined for a subterranean dwell- 
ing, and which also made it imperative that every 
dwelling of this kind should he freely ventilated. 

There is a class in our cities, male and female, which 
is compelled to labor wherever employment can be 
found ; necessity will not permit its members to 
choose their own workshops ; the hard struggle for 
mere existence compels them to sacrifice it, that 
the means for its support may be obtained during 
the shortened period of its probation. It is these 
useful but unfortunate members of the commu- 
nity, who are literally crammed into the subterra- 
nean caverns of which we have spoken so freely, 
compelled to labor from ten to twelve hours per 
day, surrounded by walls smoking with human 
effluvia, the deleterious damps from the earth 
condensed on the floors beneath their feet in the 
form of water, the air above and around them 
deprived of its oxygen or purer constituent, their 
lungs gasping for breath amid the heated constit- 
uents by which they are surrounded, and their 
frames daily sinking under the pressure of the 
various morbid combinations to which they are 
exposed. 

We are convinced that our bills of mortality 
would be considerably reduced in amount if our 
municipal authorities would deign to divide their 



358 synopsis. 

attention, equally, between the sanitory and polit- 
ical conditions of the city : but in the incessant 
struggle for preferment, place or power, the claims 
of humanity are forgotten ; her voice is stifled 
amid the shouts which rend the air for the success 
of some political aspirant, and her neglected and 
bleeding form lies prostrate amid the more exciting 
elements of political strife. 

We would press on our clerical readers espe- 
cially an attentive perusal of our remarks on their 
physical and theological education : they are the 
result of direct, personal observation, not of a day 
or a month, bat of years. 

So long as our divines persist in neglecting phys- 
ical education, by exercise and other means which 
we have pointed out, will their physical frames be 
weak, their voices inefficient for its purposes, their 
general health precarious. "We have spoken boldly 
but truty ; an imperious duty towards them has 
been performed ; the practical results arising from 
it, we leave to them. 

In the sixth chapter the nervous system is divi- 
ded into two principal centres : the one consisting 
of the brain proper, oblong marrow, and cerebellum 
or little brain ; the other, that of the spinal cord, 
extending from the base of the skull to within a 
short distance of the termination of the spinal 
column. 

We have described the origin and course of the 
nerves of intellect, showing them to have their 
origin in the superior and anterior portion of the 
brain proper; those more intimately connected 



synopsis. 359 

with the process of respiration, physically and 
mechanically, as arising from the medulla oblon- 
gata or oblong marrow, placed between the pos- 
terior base of the brain proper and the cerebellum 
or little brain, as the capital to the spinal column ; 
and those which regulate animal motion, and are 
more immediately connected with the grosser func- 
tions of animal life, as proceeding from the cere- 
bellum or little brain, situated behind the medulla 
oblongata, at the lower and most posterior part of 
the skull. 

The nerves which supply sensation to the mus- 
cular system, or in other words those of feeling, 
are shown, in the seventh chapter, to have their 
origin in the posterior portion of the spinal marrow ; 
while those which call into action muscular mo- 
tion are pointed out as arising from the anterior 
portion of the spinal cord: a distinction highly 
necessary for all to understand, more particularly 
in cases where it is necessary to apply the galvanic 
current in palsy, rheumatism, tic doloreux or neu- 
ralgia. 

Yarious experiments on living animals are de-* 
tailed to prove the correctness of the above divi- 
sion in the nervous system, to which we refer the 
reader who is desirous to inquire into the peculiar- 
ities of his own organization with reference to 
those sentient agents of intellect, feeling and emo- 
tion which pervade, in their sympathetic union, 
every ramification of the system, and unite in 
every possible condition the various functions of 
organic life : he will find the anterior lobe of the 



360 synopsis. 

brain proper demonstrated to be the seat of intel- 
lect, or rather of those nerves through which 
proceed the manifestations of mind. 

If the anatomist and physiologist have not been 
able to subject the mysterious principle which we 
call mind, the proud prerogative of humanity, to 
the influence of the dissecting knife, they have at 
least succeeded in destroying its visible operations 
by removing specific portions of the nerves of 
the brain. 

They have proved by actual experiment, that 
when the anterior portion of the brain is removed, 
Mind, as we know it by its operations, no longer 
exists. 

The reader will find, in this chapter, the cerebel- 
lum or little brain described as the regulator and 
director of voluntary muscular movement. The 
evidence which establishes this fact is incontro- 
vertible : on its removal the animal, though living, 
has no command over its movements. 

In our inquiries into the functions of the cere- 
bellum, we have been compelled to attack one of 
the strongholds of phrenology : it is this, that the 
larger the cerebellum, in proportion to the rest of the 
body, the more powerful will be the animal propensi- 
ties of the grosser kind. 

That the above is not a physiological fact, has 
been satisfactorily proved. 

The medulla oblongata, or oblong marrow, inde- 
pendently of its legitimate function, that of im- 
parting sensation and action to the respiratory 
organs, is shown to be the grand connector be- 



synopsis. 361 

tween the nerves of intellect, emotion, and animal 
sensation, maintaining an electro-nervous corre- 
spondence with the nerves of intellect above it, and 
those of animal propensities below it, standing 
between the two, as the great highway from mind 
to animal instinct ; being itself the centre where 
all the elements of feeling mingle together, and 
through which all external impressions made on 
the superficial subcutaneous nerves are carried to 
the seat of intellect. 

The philosophy of the passions and emotions, 
as connected with nervous physiology, at the con- 
clusion of this chapter, is well worthy of deep 
attention, showing, as it does, some of the more 
immediate connecting links between mind and 
matter, of which so little is known. 

The mimic who copies and re-displays the lighter 
expressions of countenance, as the celebrated Dr. 
Valentine, and the finished actor who gives the 
physical with the intellectual expression of the 
tragic muse, in the fulness of its grandeur and 
sublimity, may learn from these pages the agents 
by which the one is enabled, physically, to ex- 
press the fooleries of nature, and the other the 
lofty bearing of characters who have made empires 
tremble, and whose names still sound along the 
highways of nations as mirrors reflecting the past 
to the present generations of men. 

The eighth chapter, on the Pathology and Phys 
iology of the Brain, is one of exciting interest to 
the philosopher, the physiologist, the naturalist, 
the moralist and the general reader. 
16 



362 synopsis. 

The gradual additions to the nervous systems of 
animal existence, from the zoophyte scarcely to be 
distinguished from a vegetable, deprived of the 
organs of locomotion, chained to the rock which is 
at once its cradle and its grave, to man with his 
majestic intellect and perfect cerebral organiza- 
tion, is a subject which cannot be contemplated 
without giving rise to ackniration at the progres- 
sive advancement in the chain of animated nature, 
and gratitude for the superiority of those gifts 
which stand as the crown of eternity on the capital 
of the living column, decorating the brow of the 
master spirit who directs and controls the whole. 

An additional evidence is presented in this chap- 
ter to prove what we have previously advanced, 
that the upper and anterior part of the brain is 
the seat of the intellectual faculties. "We have 
shown that here are found the greatest number of 
twists or convolutions of the brain, those deep 
indentations which exist on the outward surface 
of the cerebral mass at the division of its substance. 

In the lower scale of creation these convolu- 
tions of the brain are not found, but their number 
increases as we ascend in it to the higher grades of 
intellect. 

But comparative anatomy furnishes us with ad- 
ditional evidence drawn from different periods of 
human existence. 

In infancy these cerebral prominences are le^s 
numerous and the fissures between them less deep : 
the intellect corresponds with these physiological 
results; it is feeble. As youth advances they 



synopsis. 363 

increase in number and depth; and intelligence 
advances, until in maturity we find the brain, in 
reference to these convex twistings, perfectly de- 
veloped, and the intellectual powers at their zenith. 

We have shown that if by any means an acci- 
dent should occur in early childhood, by which 
the growth of these convolutions is arrested, the 
intellect will either remain stationary or sink into 
idiocy. 

As if the high and important offices assigned to 
the anterior lobe of the brain and its convolutions 
were exemptions from physical suffering, it will be 
seen that the convolutions may be removed by 
the dissecting knife, without occasioning any visi- 
ble signs of pain. 

They are the registers and reflectors of sensa- 
tion and action, yet seemingly aloof from the phys- 
ical evils that appertain to the latter. 

The observations on the precocity of intellect 
in childhood, are not unworthy the attention of those 
parents, guardians and instructors of youth, who 
desire to see that " mens sana in corpore sano" in 
the rising generation, so important to the full de- 
velopment of intellectual vigor ; who wish to see 
them endued with sufficient physical vigor to sup- 
port the nervous intellectual excitement which is 
continually calling for physical aid ; without which, 
though it may for a short time emit those brilliant 
mental coruscations, as ephemeral as they are 
bright, it will inevitably sink, ere maturity ap- 
proaches, below the level over which it towered 
in the proud superiority of youth. 



364 synopsis. 

There is nothing more destructive to the ener* 
gies of the brain, mentally or physically, than the 
premature intellectual manifestation which we have 
pointed out, cherished and fostered by parental 
ignorance and pride. 

Inflammation of the brain may be produced by 
a continuation of such cerebral excitement, fol- 
lowed by that fatal disease hydrocephalus, or water 
in the head. 

In this chapter the cause of simultaneous at- 
tacks of the same disease in different portions of 
the system, as the lungs, stomach and brain, will 
be found to exist in the sympathy established 
between these great vital centres by means of the 
pneumogastric nerve. 

In chapter ninth, we have shown the similarity 
between the production of nervous force and vol- 
taic electricity; that in either case two distinct 
substances are brought into contact with each 
other by an intervening conductor, giving rise in 
the former to nervous polarity, in the latter to elec- 
tric polarity. 

Pursuing this subject of inquiry, we have estab 
lished an analogy, if not an identity, between the 
immediate development of nervous force under 
the sudden excitement of its parent nerve, and 
the instantaneous evolution of the galvanic current 
produced in the galvanic battery. 

We have shown that the animo-chemical condi- 
tions in the former, and the chemical conditions in 
the latter, are identical ; that in the absence of the 
former, no nervous force will be sent forth ; and 



synopsis. 865 

in the absence of the latter, no galvanic evolution 
of force can possibly take place. 

We shall not anticipate the conclusions which 
may be drawn from our premises : all we ask for 
them is a careful and candid perusal. 

We have proved beyond the possibility of refu- 
tation, that electricity is the great agent in exciting 
nervous action; that even after the vital spark 
has fled, it will excite the nervous system so to 
cause the muscles to imitate nature as to be undis- 
tinguishable from her actual presence, save in the 
absence of respiration and speech ; while some of 
the finny tribe, as the gymnotus electricus, are 
actual, living, electrical machines. 

The similarity in division which exists between 
the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata, is ex- 
plained in the tenth chapter; where the former, 
like the medulla, is shown to have three columns 
from which issue three different sets of nerves, 
fulfilling opposite purposes : the anterior column 
giving rise to the nerves of muscular motion ; the 
posterior column to those of sensation ; the middle 
column to the nerves of respiration. 

It will be seen that one of the peculiarities of 
the nerves, we may add of their beautiful adapta- 
tion to the purposes of organic life, is that of 
uniting various and distinct fibres into plexuses or 
webs at those particular portions of the system 
where great nervo-muscular power is required : 
thus the brachial or arm plexus, or web, supplies 
nervo-muscular power to the arms, shoulders and 
chest ; a second, the cervical or neck plexus, gives 



366 synopsis 

force to the muscles which lift the shoulder-blade 
bone, and those surrounding the posterior portion 
of the neck ; indeed, in every portion of the sys- 
tem abounding with muscles, these nervous plex- 
uses are found to exist. 

We have dwelt at some length on the anatomi- 
cal position and physiological functions of the 
great sympathetic nerve, the last noticed but most 
important nerve that traverses the spinal column, 
down which it passes on either side, from the head 
to its lowest vertebral division. 

This great nerve is united by filaments to every 
other in the system, sending off from knots or 
ganglions which it forms, at the joints of the bones 
which form the spinal column, branches which 
unite with the special nerves of the spine, the me- 
dulla oblongata, the cerebellum, etc., forming a 
complete chain of nervous communication be- 
tween every part of the system. 

A beautifully executed plate, showing the va- 
ried ramifications of the sympathetic, will be found 
accompanying our observations on its structure 
and functions. 

In the eleventh chapter, on the hygiene or health 
of the nervous system, deeply sensible of the great 
importance of the subject to the individual and to 
society, we have endeavored to impress on the 
minds of all who may read these pages, the neces- 
sity of paying more attention to that peculiar sus- 
ceptibility to the impression of specific disease, 
which is entailed on posterity by hereditary de- 
scent. Scrofula and insanity are indebted, not 



synopsis. 367 

anfrequently, for their origin, to this cause; a 
calamity entailed on posterity by imprudent mar- 
riages. 

We have shown that marriages within certain 
degrees of consanguinity are also not without 
their evil results to individuals and society, more 
particularly among the wealthy and indolent aris- 
tocracies of Europe, and at times among those of 
our own country. 

In alluding in this chapter to the influence of 
the brain on the animal functions, and vice versa, 
we have again adverted to the pre-stated physio- 
logical fact, that all organic life requires repose, 
and that when the electro-nervous force is concen- 
trated on one organic function, the rest should not 
be forced into action. Thus during the period in 
which digestion is separating the purer from the 
grosser elements of nutrition, the electro-nervous 
power is concentrated on the stomach; the brain, 
as a natural consequence, is deprived of this essen 
tial agent of support to activity of function : dur- 
ing the process of digestion the mind should never 
be intensely exerted. 

The morning of day, as stated in the hygiene 
of the nervous system, is the period for great 
mental application: the equilibrium of nervous 
power, disturbed by the events of the preceding 
day, has been restored during the hours of sleep ; 
the electro-nervous power has, consequently, accu- 
mulated, and requires some object on which to 
expend itself: the brain also in the morning suffers 
no interference from any action of the stomach ; 



368 synopsis. 

no extra amount of nervous force, in health, is 
required bj any other organ ; it may be concen- 
trated through the brain on the object immediately 
within its grasp. 

We have proved, from the nervous expenditures 
of the system at different periods of life, that the 
assertion, " infancy and youth require more sleep than 
age," is far from hypothetical ; that the custom of 
forcing children to rise very early in the morning, 
is not in accordance with the laws of their organi- 
zation, or the enjoyment and perpetuity of health. 
"We invite the attention of parents and friends of 
youth to these remarks. 

The necessity of a classification in our public 
and private schools, based upon the development 
of the muscular and nervous systems, is strongly 
advocated. We have shown the injustice in the 
exercise of that power, which frequently plies the 
cane or the rod to the seemingly indolent pupil : 
we say seemingly, for his physical frame and ner- 
vous energies are frequently inadequate to perform 
the duties imposed upon him even under the actual 
infliction of unnecessary, harsh and injudicious 
punishment. 

Nature cannot be /logged into functional exertion 
which her physical and mental organization refuses 
to support. Every blow inflicted under such cir- 
cumstances, is from the hand of the oppressor 
The apology which ignorance may offer for injus- 
tice, is a meagre palliation for wrongs inflicted by 
the latter. 

We have advised an equal distribution of atten 



synopsis. 369 

don, during the early years of youth, between 
intellectual, physical and moral education. 

This subject is of such paramount importance, 
so deeply connected with individual happiness 
and national prosperity, that we shall offer no 
apology for again adverting to it. 

If the intellectual education is cultivated to the 
neglect of the physical, the latter will, ultimately, 
be inefficient to sustain the former, and premature 
decay will be the certain result : the mind will con- 
sume the body. 

If the physical and intellectual educations are 
strictly enforced, while the moral education is 
allowed to take care of itself, we may expect, in 
maturer life, to see the passions unrestrained, the 
duties of life neglected, in the progress of age the 
most licentious habits, and ultimately, complete 
moral degradation. 

There are other and nobler emotions to gratify 
and foster than those which give rise to the cupidity 
for wealth, or the ambitious aspirations for intellec- 
tual fame. 

Society claims from her subjects good fellowship, 
integrity, candor, honesty, and all those finer moral 
attributes without which the arm of the assassin 
would be unrestrained, and the midnight plunderer 
might indulge his propensities unchecked by any 
power save that of municipal law. 

The twelfth chapter opens with a general con- 
sideration of the Doctrine of Life, and the simple 
principle of vitality which governs all animated 

and vegetative existence. We have shown that 
16* 



370 SYKOPSIS. 

this simple principle, to which the term vital force 
has been applied, is seen to govern the germina- 
tion of the seeds of plants, the eggs of fowls, and 
the ova of mammalia; that its absence implies 
decomposition and death ; that life consists in a 
constant strife for supremacy between vital force 
and that of decay ; that if the former exceeds that 
of the latter in the system, its various tissues will 
become perfect in proportion to its preponderating 
influence ; that if the latter force, that of decay, 
is most powerful, the consequences will be emacia- 
tion of the system. 

It has been shown that the primary condition 
essential to the integrity of vital actions in anima- 
ted existence, is a proper and adequate supply of 
fresh material to supply the place of that which is 
continually passing into decomposition ; that the 
second condition necessary to insure the perfection 
of vital force, is a constant supply of pure and 
invigorating air ; that proper warmth is its third 
essential. 

Some interesting and highly valuable remarks 
on these conditions, by the celebrated Liebig of the 
University of Munich, one of the most eminent 
physiologists and chemists on the continent of 
Europe, will be found illustrating our principles 
and supporting our doctrines, in this chapter.* 

The sources of animal heat are shown to be pro 
duced by the combustion of the food and tissues 

* This celebrated chemist has lately been appointed Professor 
of Animal Chemistry in the University of Munich, by the King 
of Bavaria. 



SYNOPSIS. 371 

of the body, acted upon by the oxygen derived 

from the arterial blood. 

Baron Liebig estimates the amount of oxygen 
inhaled each day, at about thirty-two and a half 
ounces, and the weight of carbon expired from the 
lungs at eight ounces. 

We must refer our readers to this chapter for a 
beautiful scientific and comparative view of animal 
electricity, its effects, currents and conductors, by 
Professor Miiller, of Berlin, and Dr. Emil du Bois 
Reymond. 

It will be found to contain, within a small com- 
pass, all that is known in reference to the laws 
which regulate the actions of vital force. 

It may perhaps be unnecessary to add that Pro- 
fessor Liebig has long held the first rank among 
the chemists and philosophers of Europe; and, 
without any discredit to the great Professor, we 
may place Professor Miiller and Dr. Du Bois Rey- 
mond in the same category. 

In the thirteenth chapter, we have discussed 
the philosophy of life, and explained the intimacy 
of its connection with the healthy condition of 
those functions which enter largely into the prin- 
ciple of vitality. 

It will be seen that life is not homogeneous but 
heterogeneous, possessing various elements, among 
which the most active and important is that of 
electricity. 

That this fluid or ether pervades the whole 
material world ; that its effects are visible in inor- 
ganic equally with organic matter ; that it is the 



872 synopsis. 

controlling power which impels vitality on its 
onward course, uproots the mountains, levels 
cities, is seen in the tornado and the whirlwind, 
one of the elements of air, water and heat, indeed 
inseparable from any object which is seen upon 
the earth ; that it stands at the head of the ele- 
ments which enter human organization, of the 
functions of which that organization is the seat, 
we have demonstrated in this chapter. 

We have stated what we hold to be true, that 
the medical art, so called, from the time of the 
Messiah to the present period, has not rested on 
the basis of science : if, in some cases, the medical 
profession have agreed in reference to the diagno- 
sis and prognosis of disease, their therapeutics 
have been opposed to each other. 

What fixed medical laws have existed to regu- 
late the cure of disease ? We know not of any. 
Anatomy and surgery have long since been placed 
under the renovating influence of science ; but 
medicine has been compelled to grope her way 
through a host of experimentalists, each one satis- 
fied that he has discovered a catholicon in the 
alleviation of human suffering, and all differing 
from each other. 

The fourteenth chapter shows the connection of 
electricity with living bodies, and its influence and 
action upon them. We call the attention of the 
reader particularly to the remarks contained in 
this chapter ; after perusing them he will doubt- 
less agree with us in the truth of the physiological 
fact, that all diseases to which the human machine 



synopsis. 373 

is subject, arise from the exhaustion or accumula- 
tion of the electro-nervous fluid, or from some 
concentration of it on a particular portion of the 
system, to the prejudice of the remaining tissues. 

It will be seen in this chapter that the French, 
ever hand-in-hand with science, and willing to 
take advantage of the benefits she confers, so far 
as they are convertible to the interests of animal 
or vegetable existence, have applied electricity to 
the purpose of vegetation ; that whole vineyards 
in France are filled with electric conductors for 
the purpose of invigorating the grape-vines and 
producing more excellent fruit ; a hint worthy of 
the attention of our scientific horticultural associa- 
tions. 

In perusing this chapter, the reader will see that 
when electricity is equally diffused over the face 
of nature, when it pervades in the same degree 
the air, the earth and the deeps, all is calm and 
quiet; and that the convulsions which rend the 
mountains and cleave asunder the oaks of the 
forest, that swallow up cities and excavate tombs 
for thousands, are owing to the destruction of its 
equilibrium. 

Nor are its effects confined to the elements on 
these occasions: the nervous system languishes 
and droops, the spirits are depressed, a general 
and unaccountable lassitude ensues, from which 
no recovery takes place until the elemental electric 
equilibrium is restored. 

Such is the condition of the system during the 
siroccos of the south of Europe, the kamsins of 



374 synopsis. 

Asia, and on all occasions when the atmosphere is 
suddenly deprived of its electricity. 

The visible connection of electricity with that 
dreadful scourge cholera, proved on the testimony 
of eminent physicians in Great Britain and on the 
continent of Europe, as detailed at the conclusion 
of this chapter, we press on the attention of our 
medical men : a new and successful practice may 
yet be devised, based on the simple application of 
electricity in some peculiar form, which shall neu- 
tralize the effects of this fell destroyer, and render 
its attacks comparatively harmless. 

Mr. Atkinson, an eminent surgeon in the Brit- 
ish metropolis, says, heat and electricity were 
evolved together, from the bodies of those labor- 
ing under cholera, in a state of collapse. 

The reports in their general character from St. 
Petersburg in Eussia, and London in Great Britain, 
in connection with the atmospheric condition ob- 
served on the appearance and during the progress 
of the cholera in England and on the continent of 
Europe, coincide with the observations made by 
the most eminent physicians in our own land, viz., 
the statement that during the outbreak and contin- 
uance of cholera, an almost total absence of electricity 
from the atmosphere ivas observed and felt, and a totai 
deprivation of electric power in those bodies ordinarily 
possessed, of it in a condensed degree. 

Who will say, with these facts on record, thai 
electricity may not yet become the most powerful 
and only truly successful agent, in the cure ol 
cholera ? 



synopsis. 375 

Chapter fifteenth will be found to contain a 
detailed account of the effects of electricity on 
various forms of disease, numerous cases of which, 
well attested, are adduced, with the opinion of the 
most eminent medical professors, private and pub- 
lic, in London, in relation to its curative powers, 
and the absolute necessity of more frequently re- 
sorting to its aid. Among them will be found 
the names of John Abernethy, Golding, Bird, 
Dr. Eadford, Dr. Tuson, &c. &c. 

The scientific knowledge necessary to the elec- 
trician is detailed in this chapter, without which 
success will rarely, if ever, attend the applica- 
tions of this health-renewing agent. 

Under the guidance of the man of science, elec- 
tricity will accomplish all that we have claimed 
for it ; in the hands of the empiric, scarcely any 
thing. 

The perfect electrician must be an anatomist 
and a physiologist, thoroughly acquainted with 
the nervous system in all its ramifications, with 
the muscular system in its healthy and diseased 
conditions, and correct in his diagnosis and prog- 
nosis. 

We are supported in these remarks by the testi- 
mony of Dr. Wisgrill of Vienna, who in speaking 
of electricity says, " A revolution has now taken 
place in favor of electricity, which had fallen into dis- 
use, not from the inefficacy of the means, hut from 
the mode in ivhich they were employed." 

If the voice which when living gave laws to 
medical science, appreciated and acknowledged by 



376 synopsis. 

all her more intelligent disciples, has left its im- 
press on the present and future generations, the 
remarks of the late distinguished Professor John 
Abeknethy, of Bartholomew's Hospital, London, 
in favor of electricity, demand a more than ordi- 
nary share of respect and attention. "Electri- 
city," says this distinguished surgeon, "is a part 
of surgical practice that may be considered unique ; 
all other means operate on the surface, but elec- 
tricity will pervade the very centre of the body." 

At the close of this chapter will be found a very 
instructive letter on the successful application of 
electricity to some of the little sufferers in the late 
dreadful calamity in the Ward school in Greenwich 
Avenue, (New- York) by Dr. Edward Yanderpool, 
one of the most respectable physicians in the city. 

In the sixteenth chapter we have presented our 
readers with a graduated scale of the time consumed 
in digesting the various kinds of animal and vege- 
table food. The remarks on the adaptation of the 
different forms of nutriment, in reference to its 
quality and quantity, to the variety of temperaments 
or peculiar constitutions of the animal frame, seemed 
necessary to the perfection of a work intended to 
condense within its pages all that was necessary to 
be known in relation to the physiology and pa- 
thology of the human constitution : their atten- 
tive perusal will more than compensate the reader 
for the trouble bestowed. 

We commend our remarks on pastry, puddings, 
rich cakes, &c, to the consideration of those kind, 
indulgent, but mistaken mothers who, to pamper 



synopsis. 877 

the vitiated appetites of their offspring, too often 
injure their health and lay the foundation of last- 
ing disease. 

The remark of Dr. Caldwell, of Kentucky, 
'that indigestion as often commences in the brain 
as in the stomach," may on a first perusal perhaps 
excite a smile, but reflection will admit and appre- 
ciate its truth and value. 

We conclude this chapter with a table which 
presents the amount of nutrition contained in the 
various articles which are enumerated in it. 

The reader will find in the seventeenth chapter, 
some interesting observations on the influences of 
Alcohol on the human system. 

The means by which the alcoholic stimulus is 
conveyed into the circulation, from the absorbents 
in the stomach, through the thoracic duct, and 
finally through the veins which open into the right 
side of the heart, are fully detailed. 

We have shown that all the organs of animal 
life secrete some portion of the deleterious draught, " 
as the heart, liver, kidneys, &c. ; that another por- 
tion is exhaled through the lungs in the form of 
carbon, and through the skin in perspirable mat- 
ter ; that it acts as a stimulant upon all of them ; 
that post-mortem examinations of the bodies of 
drunkards display diseased stomachs and livers ; 
that in most of them the latter organ is found sur- 
rounded by a fatty tissue, which also pervades its 
internal structure, materially interfering with its 
function, (the secretion of bile,) by which means 
the bile is not properly separated from the blood, 



378 synopsis. 

but passing through the whole venous system 
with the vital fluid, produces on the subcutaneous 
veins, and on the skin generally, that yellow tinge 
which is always an attendant on jaundice. 

But it will be seen that it is not in the liver, 
kidneys, skin, &c v that alcohol produces the most 
injurious consequences, so far as their secretions 
are concerned, but upon the structure and func- 
tions of the train and spinal marroiu ; producing 
congestion of the organ and imbecility of func- 
tion in the brain, amounting in its final conse- 
quences to idiocy ; the appalling wreck of human 
intellect, the self-immolation of Mind ! 

The blood of the drunkard cannot be rendered 
purely vital; it becomes so loaded with carbon 
that it cannot be properly subjected to the influ- 
ence of oxygen in passing through the lungs ; the 
nervous system, particularly that part of it within 
the skull, is consequently nourished by blood inad- 
equate to the support of its energies ; the cerebral 
function becomes depressed, and imbecility or fa- 
tuity is the result. 

We commend the detail of premonitory symp- 
toms leading to this final and appalling result, to 
the special attention of the general reader, and 
particularly to those who stand on the bank ol 
this immoral Rubicon, but have not yet plunged 
amid its more boisterous waves. 

It is shown in this chapter, that the blood of the 
inebriate becomes, at times, so completely sur- 
charged with carbon as to give rise to spontaneous 
combustion. 



synopsis. 379 

The purest carbon which can be produced, con- 
tains about five per cent, of hydrogen gas or 
inflammable air : the theory of animal combus- 
tion, then, depends on the oxygen acting on and 
giving support to the hydrogen contained in the 
carbon of the blood, as it passes through the lungs. 

To whatever causes, however, this actual burning 
up of the animal frame, this spontaneous blazing 
human demolition, is owing, the facts on record 
are too numerous and well authenticated to admit 
of doubt. That spontaneous animal combustion 
does consume at times the drunkard, is an estab- 
lished physiological fact, resting on ocular demon- 
strative evidence that cannot be refuted. The 
case recorded by Dr. Schofield, of Canada, should 
be perused by all. 

The chapter closes with an ideal picture of the 
drunkard, unfortunately too often realized, accom- 
panied by reflections on the moral consequences of 
drunkenness to the individual who is its subject, 
his family and society generally ; with some re- 
marks on our municipal regulations, and the rev- 
enues derived from licensing retail groggeries. 

In the eighteenth chapter, we have discussed 
the influences of Tobacco on the human system, 
showing its pernicious effects on the organic nerves 
of the stomach, and through them on the nervous 
system generally. 

We have shown that loss of muscular power is 
the inevitable result of the long-continued use of 
this narcotic weed, either in chewing or smoking. 
A case is recorded which strongly supports this 



380 SYNOPSIS. 

conclusion, as is also the evidence of Dr. Chapman 
of Philadelphia, who states that he has seen sev- 
eral cases strongly resembling " delirium tremens " 
occur from the excessive use of tobacco. 

We know that it interferes with digestion ; that 
it leads to a desire for drinking, being one of the 
first approaches, at times, to drunkenness; that 
it produces loss of muscular power, and that loss 
of energy in the nervous system, particularly that 
of the brain, which incapacitates its victim for 
pursuing the best purposes of his moral or intel- 
lectual existence. These alone should be sufficient 
incitements, particularly on the young and rising 
generation, to abstain from or abandon its use. 

In the nineteenth chapter, we have discussed 
the question of the connection between Minot and 
Matter, not as metaphysicians but as physiologists. 

In pursuing the investigation, we have consid- 
ered the arterial blood as charged with positive elec- 
tricity ; the venous blood as in a negative state. We 
have shown that iron exists as one of the component 
elements of the vital fluid, that it is at the same time 
a powerful conductor of the electric fluid ; that 
the blood in passing through the lungs extracts 
oxygen from the atmosphere, and electricity, by 
the aid of its metallic element; that it is thus 
imbued with the principle of vitality, and changes 
its color from a black or dark violet to a bright 
scarlet by the vitalizing influence of electricity; 
that the nerves are in close contact with the ar- 
teries, (more particularly the larger arteries,) 
through which latter the positive electrically 



SYNOPSIS. 681 

charged blood passes ; and that the electric fluid 
is discharged through the coats of the latter to the 
nerves which entwine around them ; that the 
heart has a receiving and a communicating cham- 
ber, but within itself has but little propulsive 
circulating force. 

In controverting the time-honored opinion of 
the heart's action, we have not been unmindful 
that assertion was not proof: we have consequently 
shown that the force of circulation and respiration, 
so far as the heart and lungs are concerned, but no 
farther , arises at the base of the brain ; that it is 
the involuntary nerves arising from this division 
of a great centre, that cause the heart to pulsate 
and the lungs to expand and contract ; that it is 
the electricity received into the latter organs 
through the blood at each inspiration, which ex- 
cites the nervous force of the brain ; that if the 
spinal nerves be cut asunder below the region of 
the heart and lungs, a paralysis immediately takes 
place in the lower extremities, but that the circu- 
lating fluid still meanders through its silent canals, 
furnishing positive evidence that the general circu- 
lation is not derived from any influence received 
from the base of the brain : were this hypothesis 
correct, when the nervous chain was destroyed at 
the base of the brain the blood below that point 
would cease to circulate. As an additional support 
to our theory that electricity controls the circula- 
tion, we have shown that if the spinal marrow be 
divided above the region of the heart and lungs, 
the latter will become immediately paralyzed ; but 



382 synopsis. 

that respiration, or rather the electricity received 
from it, will force the column of blood through 
the lungs and the left chambers of the heart to the 
uttermost windings of the arterial system, and 
through the returning veins to the right side of 
the heart, after the paralysis is complete. 

The above physiological fact furnishes us with 
irrefragable evidence, that the muscular action of 
the heart and lungs is obedient to the nervous 
action proceeding from the base of the brain, as 
the former ceases when the latter is destroyed; 
but that the blood is dependent for its circulation 
on the electricity imbibed from the atmosphere as 
it passes through the lungs, and that this electri- 
city, after having been discharged from the arterial 
blood, is carried along the nervous system to the 
upper and anterior lobes of the brain, where it 
excites the intellectual functions. 

If our theory that electricity stimulates the 
centres and the utmost ramifications of the ner- 
vous system be correct ; that the latter acts upon 
the circulatory, respiratory and muscular systems, 
the functions of the latter, in the integrity of their 
healthy performance, will be in no inconsiderable 
degree proportioned to the electricity of the sys- 
tem and its regular distribution : in the latter case, 
health will be the result; when deranged in its 
justly apportioned balance, disease. 

Oxygen and electricity are the only purifiers of 
the blood : the panaceas which cupidity daily im- 
poses on credulity as purifiers of the vital stream, 
may possibly fill the pockets of the empirics who 



synopsis. 383 

manufacture them, but will confer no beneficial 
results on individuals or society. The blood in 
itself cannot be rendered impure, except by some 
actual obstruction to its circulation. Yet quackery 
finds its advocates, and disease and death friends. 

Several melancholy but interesting cases are 
presented in this chapter, to show the connection 
between electricity and insanity in all conditions 
of the latter, and with various conditions of phys- 
ical disease. 

In its close we have shown how pain is produced 
and graduated by the positive and negative states 
of electricity, and by a union of both. 

As an illustration of the connection between 
mind and matter, mingled with the awful conse- 
quences of ebriety, we refer our readers to the case 
recorded of Mr. Y., of ISTew-Brunswick, in New- 
Jersey, as true as it was fatal and melancholy. 

We turn from the record of the influence of 
mind over matter in this chapter, in the produc- 
tion of disease, to its effects for good or evil on 
disposition and character. 

A case strongly illustrative of this point is 
recorded, detailed to the author by the late Eev. 
Dr. Eudd, of Utica. 

Pursuing the subject of mind over matter, we 
have ventured on showing its power over the 
symmetry and beauty of human organization. On 
this part of the subject we have touched lightly : 
it was not directly connected with the subject 
embraced in these pages, but still too highly in- 
teresting to be entirely omittec}. 



384 synopsis. 

The concluding chapter, previous to this synopsis, 
is occupied by a description of the various min- 
eral and vegetable poisons, and their antidotes. 

An instructive case is recorded which came 
under the personal observation of the author, in 
which two children became deprived of reason 
and affected with symptoms of paralysis and in- 
sanity combined, from the effect of swallowing 
the seeds of the stramonium, commonly known 
by the name of stinkweed or thorn apple. 

We had previously no idea that this vegetable 
poison was so powerful a nervous excitant. From 
inquiries made a few days since, (the poison was 
taken two years since,) we find that one of the 
children is still laboring under a partial paralysis 
of the lower extremities. 

We conclude this chapter by some remarks in 
tended as cautions, on the use of the spigelia or 
Indian pink root, in cases of worms in children. 

We have seen the most depressing influences 
produced on the nervous system, by the incautious 
administration of this vegetable drug ; there are 
other and far better vermifuges, as spirits of tur- 
pentine combined with castor oil, which will leave 
no evil effects on the delicate nervous systems of 
children to whom they are administered. We 
would reject the spigelia entirely, as a vermifuge. 

The final chapter, which we are now about to con- 
clude, recapitulates some of the leading arguments 
we have advanced, supports others, produces addi- 
tional testimony in favor of the electro-nervous 
doctrine of disease and health, of which we hope 



synopsis. 385 

there will be found few skeptics in the advancing 
steps of scientific investigation. We claim no 
further credit in our advocacy of this simple and 
rational system, than that due to the workmen 
employed in laying its foundation: its superstruc- 
ture we resign into other and abler hands. Our 
object will be accomplished, so far as this volume 
is concerned, if in the arguments we have advanced 
and the evidence we have produced to establish 
their validity, in the alleviation of the pains of 
suffering humanity, by those simple means which 
Nature, ever bountiful and benevolent, has placed 
within our reach, we have been as successful as 
we desire. 

We take leave of our subject with a firm con- 
viction that Electro-galvanism will eventually 
form a new and scientific sj^stem in the treatment 
of disease, beyond the cavils of the skeptic or the 
frowns of interested opponents. 






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